Refugee
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For other uses, see Refugee (disambiguation).
Under the United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of their nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail him/herself of the protection of that country.[1]
The concept of a refugee was expanded by the Convention's 1967 Protocol and by regional conventions in Africa and Latin America to include persons who had fled war or other violence in their home country. A person who is seeking to be recognized as a refugee is an asylum seeker.
Refugee was defined as a legal group in response to the large numbers of people fleeing Eastern Europe following World War II. The lead international agency coordinating refugee protection is the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), which counted 8,400,000 refugees worldwide at the beginning of 2006. This was the lowest number since 1980.[2] The major exception is the 4,300,000 Palestinian refugees under the authority of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), who are the only group to be granted refugee status to the descendants of refugees according to the above definition.[3] The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants gives the world total as 62,000,000 refugees and estimates there are over 34,000,000 displaced by war, including internally displaced persons, who remain within the same national borders. The majority of refugees who leave their country seek asylum in countries neighboring their country of nationality. The "durable solutions" to refugee populations, as defined by UNHCR and governments, are: voluntary repatriation to the country of origin; local integration into the country of asylum; and resettlement to a third country.[4]
As of December 31, 2005, the largest source countries of refugees are the Afghanistan, Iraq, Myanmar, Sudan, and the Palestinian Territories. The country with the largest number of IDPs is Sudan, with over 5 million. As of 2006, with 800,000 refugees and IDPs, Azerbaijan had the highest per capita IDP population in the world.[5]
Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 World War II and UNHCR
1.2 UNHCR
2 Asylum seekers
3 Refugee resettlement
4 Displaced women and children
5 Refugee law
6 Refugee camps
6.1 Boat people
7 Historical and contemporary refugee crises
7.1 Refugee situations in the Middle East
7.1.1 Palestinian refugees
7.1.2 Jewish refugees
7.1.3 African refugees in Israel
7.1.4 Refugees from the Algerian War
7.1.5 Jordan
7.1.6 Lebanon
7.1.7 Western Sahara
7.1.8 Nagorno Karabakh
7.1.9 Turkey
7.1.10 Refugees from the Iraq wars
7.1.11 Religious minorities in the Middle East
7.2 Refugee movements in Asia
7.2.1 Afghanistan
7.2.2 The Partition of 1947
7.2.3 Bengali refugees in India in 1971
7.2.4 The Himalayas
7.2.5 Sri Lankan Tamils
7.2.6 Kashmir
7.2.7 Tajikistan Civil War
7.2.8 Uzbekistan
7.2.9 Southeast Asia (Vietnam War)
7.3 Refugee movements in Africa
7.3.1 Angola
7.3.2 Uganda
7.3.3 Great Lakes refugee crisis
7.3.4 Darfur
7.4 Refugee movements in and within Europe
7.4.1 European Union
7.4.2 Hungary
7.4.3 Czechoslovakia
7.4.4 Cyprus
7.4.5 Balkans
7.4.6 Chechnya
7.4.7 Georgia
7.5 Refugee movements in the Americas
8 Climate refugees
9 Refugees as security threats
10 Common refugee medical problems
11 Exploitation
12 World Refugee Day
13 See also
14 Notes
15 References
16 External links
[edit] History
See also: right of asylum and sanctuary
The concept of the meaning that a person who fled into a holy place could not be harmed without inviting divine retribution, was understood by the ancient Greeks and ancient Egyptians. However, the right to seek asylum in a church or other holy place, was first codified in law by King Ethelbert of Kent in about 600 A.D. Similar laws were implemented throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. The related concept of political exile also has a long history: Ovid was sent to Tomis and Voltaire was exiled to England. Through the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, nations recognized each others' sovereignty. However, it was not until the advent of romantic nationalism in late eighteenth century Europe that nationalism became prevalent enough that the phrase "country of nationality" became meaningful and people crossing borders were required to provide identification.
One million Armenians fled Turkey between 1915 and 1923 to escape persecution and genocide.The term "refugee" is sometimes applied to people who may have fit the definition, if the 1951 Convention was applied retroactively. There are many candidates. For example, after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685 outlawed Protestantism in France, hundreds of thousands of Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Switzerland, South Africa, Germany and Prussia. Repeated waves of pogroms swept Eastern Europe, propelling mass Jewish emigration (more than 2 million Russian Jews emigrated in the period 1881–1920). Since the 19th century, an exodus by the large portion of Muslim peoples (who are termed "Muhacir" under a general definition) from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea and Crete,[6] took refuge in present-day Turkey and moulded the country's fundamental features.[7] The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 caused 800,000 people to leave their homes.[8] Various groups of people were officially designated refugees beginning in World War I.
The first international coordination on refugee affairs was by the League of Nations' High Commission for Refugees. The Commission, led by Fridtjof Nansen, was set up in 1921 to assist the approximately 1,500,000 persons who fled the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent civil war (1917–1921), most of them aristocrats fleeing the Communist government. In 1923, the mandate of the Commission was expanded to include the more than one million Armenians who left Turkish Asia Minor in 1915 and 1923 due to a series of events now known as the Armenian Genocide. Over the next several years, the mandate was expanded to include Assyrians and Turkish refugees.[9] In all of these cases, a refugee was defined as a person in a group for which the League of Nations had approved a mandate, as opposed to a person to whom a general definition applied.
The 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey involved some two million people, most forcibly made refugees and de jure denaturalized from homelands of centuries or millennia, in a treaty promoted and overseen by the international community as part of the Treaty of Lausanne.
The U.S. Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924. The Immigration Act of 1924 was aimed at further restricting the Southern and Eastern Europeans, especially Jews, Italians and Slavs, who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s.[10] Most of the European refugees (principally Jews and Slavs) fleeing the Stalin, Nazis and World War II were barred from coming to the United States.[11]
In 1930, the Nansen International Office for Refugees was established as a successor agency to the Commission. Its most notable achievement was the Nansen passport, a passport for refugees, for which it was awarded the 1938 Nobel Peace Prize. The Nansen Office was plagued by inadequate funding, rising numbers of refugees and the refusal by League members to let the Office assist their own citizens. Regardless, it managed to convince fourteen nations to sign the Refugee Convention of 1933, a weak human right instrument, and assist over one million refugees.
Children preparing for evacuation from Spain during the Spanish Civil War between 1936 and 1939.The rise of Nazism led to such a severe rise in refugees from Germany that in 1933 the League created a High Commission for Refugees Coming from Germany. The mandate of this High Commission was subsequently expanded to include persons from Austria and Sudetenland. 150,000 Czechs were displaced after October 1, 1938, when the German army entered the border regions of Czechoslovakia surrendered in accordance with the Munich Agreement.[12]
On 31 December 1938, both the Nansen Office and High Commission were dissolved and replaced by the Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees under the Protection of the League.[9] This coincided with the flight of several hundred thousand Spanish Republicans to France after their loss to the Nationalists in 1939 in the Spanish Civil War.[13]
[edit] World War II and UNHCR
The conflict and political instability during World War II led to massive amounts of forced migration (see World War II evacuation and expulsion). In 1943, the Allies created the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) to provide aid to areas liberated from Axis powers, including parts of Europe and China. This included returning over seven million refugees, then commonly referred to as displaced persons or DPs, to their country of origin and setting up displaced persons camps for one million refugees who refused to be repatriated.
In the last months of World War II some five million German civilians from the German provinces of East Prussia, Pomerania and Silesia fled the onslaught of the Red Army and became refugees in Mecklenburg, Brandenburg and Saxony. After the capitulation of the Wehrmacht in May 1945 the Allies occupied Germany in the borders as they were on 31 December 1937 (Berlin declaration of 5 June 1945), but since the spring of 1945 the Poles had begun expelling the remaining German population (ethnic cleansing) and by the time the Allies met in Potsdam on 17 July 1945 Potsdam Conference, a chaotic refugee situation faced the occupying powers, who, pursuant to Article IX of the Potsdam protocol of 2 August 1945 provisionally placed one fourth of Germany's territory under Polish administration; pursuant to article XIII of the protocol, the remaining German populations in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary were to be transferred West in an "orderly and humane" manner. Although not approved by Allies at Potsdam, hundreds of thousands of ethnic German living in Yugoslavia and Romania were deported to slave labour in the Soviet Union and subsequently expelled to occupied Germany Allied-occupied Germany and subsequently to the German Democratic Republic, Austria and the Federal Republic of Germany. This entailed the largest population transfer in history. In all 15 million Germans were affected, and more than two million perished expulsion of the German population[14]. (See German exodus from Eastern Europe.) Between the end of World War II and the erection of the Berlin Wall in 1961, more than 563,700 refugees from East Germany traveled to West Germany for asylum from the Soviet occupation.
Also, millions of former Russian citizens were forcefully repatriated (against their will) into the USSR.[15] On 11 February 1945, at the conclusion of the Yalta Conference, the United States and United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the USSR.[16] The interpretation of this Agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Soviets regardless of their wishes. When the war ended in May 1945, British and U.S. civilian authorities ordered their military forces in Europe to deport to the Soviet Union millions of former residents of the USSR, including numerous persons who had left Russia and established different citizenship many years before. The forced repatriation operations took place from 1945 to 1947.[17] At the end of the World War II, there were more than 5 million "displaced persons" from the Soviet Union in the Western Europe. About 3 million had been forced laborers (Ostarbeiters)[18] in Germany and occupied territories.[19][20] The Soviet POWs and the Vlasov men were put under the jurisdiction of SMERSH (Death to Spies). Of the 5.7 million Soviet prisoners of war captured by the Germans, 3.5 million had died while in German captivity by the end of the war.[21][22] The survivors on their return to the USSR were treated as traitors (see Order No. 270).[23][24] Over 1.5 million surviving Red Army soldiers imprisoned by the Germans were sent to the Gulag.[25][26]
Poland and Soviet Ukraine conducted population exchanges – Poles that resided east of the established Poland-Soviet border were deported to Poland (ca. 2,100,000 persons) (see Repatriation of Poles) and Ukrainians that resided west of the established Poland-Soviet Union border were deported to Soviet Ukraine. Population transfer to Soviet Ukraine occurred from September 1944 to May 1946 (ca. 450,000 persons) (see Repatriation of Ukrainians). Some Ukrainians (ca. 200,000 persons) left southeast Poland more or less voluntarily (between 1944 and 1945).[27]
The UNRRA was shut down in 1947, at which time it was taken over by the newly instituted International Refugee Organization. While the handover was originally planned to take place at the beginning of 1947, it did not occur until July 1947.[28] The International Refugee Organization was a temporary organization of the United Nations (UN), which itself had been founded in 1945, with a mandate to largely finish the UNRRA's work of repatriating or resettling European refugees. It was dissolved in 1952 after resettling about one million refugees.[29] The definition of a refugee at this time was an individual with either a Nansen passport or a "Certificate of Eligibility" issued by the International Refugee Organization.
[edit] UNHCR
Main article: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (established December 14, 1950) protects and supports refugees at the request of a government or the United Nations and assists in their return or resettlement. All refugees in the world are under the UNHCR mandate except Palestinian Arabs who fled the future Jewish state between 1947 and 1948 (see below). However, Palestinians who fled the Palestinian territories after 1948 (for example, during the 1967 six day war) are under the jurisdiction of the UNHCR.
UNHCR provides protection and assistance not only to refugees, but also to other categories of displaced or needy people. These include asylum seekers, refugees who have returned home but still need help in rebuilding their lives, local civilian communities directly affected by the movements of refugees, stateless people and so-called internally displaced people (IDPs). IDPs are civilians who have been forced to flee their homes, but who have not reached a neighboring country and therefore, unlike refugees, are not protected by international law and may find it hard to receive any form of assistance. As the nature of war has changed in the last few decades, with more and more internal conflicts replacing interstate wars, the number of IDPs has increased significantly to an estimated 5 million people worldwide.
It succeeded the earlier International Refugee Organization and the even earlier United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (which itself succeeded the League of Nations' Commissions for Refugees).
UNHCR was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1954 and 1981. The agency is mandated to lead and co-ordinate international action to protect refugees and resolve refugee problems worldwide. Its primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. It strives to ensure that everyone can exercise the right to seek asylum and find safe refuge in another State, with the option to return home voluntarily, integrate locally or to resettle in a third country.
Many celebrities are associated with the agency as UNHCR Goodwill Ambassadors, currently including Angelina Jolie, Giorgio Armani and others. The individual who has raised the most money in benefit performances and volunteer work on behalf of UNHCR was Luciano Pavarotti[4].
UNHCR's mandate has gradually been expanded to include protecting and providing humanitarian assistance to what it describes as other persons "of concern," including internally-displaced persons (IDPs) who would fit the legal definition of a refugee under the 1951 Refugee Convention and 1967 Protocol, the 1969 Organization for African Unity Convention, or some other treaty if they left their country, but who presently remain in their country of origin. UNHCR thus has missions in Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Serbia and Montenegro and Côte d'Ivoire to assist and provide services to IDPs.
As of January 1, 2006 there are 20,751,900 refugees in the world. Asia – 8,603,600 Africa – 5,169,300 Europe – 3,666,700 Latin America and Caribbean – 2,513,000 North America – 716,800 Oceania – 82,500
[edit] Asylum seekers
"Asylum seeker" redirects here. For the video game, see Hellboy: Asylum Seeker.
"Asylum seekers" redirects here. For the comedy film, see Asylum Seekers (film).
Power lines leading to a rubbish dump hover just overhead in El Carpio, a Nicaraguan refugee camp in Costa RicaRefugees are a subgroup of the broader category of displaced persons. Environmental refugees (people displaced because of environmental problems such as drought) are not included in the definition of "refugee" under international law, as well as internally displaced people. According to international refugee law, a refugee is someone who seeks refuge in a foreign country because of war and violence, or out of fear of persecution "on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group" (to use the terminology from U.S. law).
Until a request for refuge has been accepted, the person is referred to as an asylum seeker. Only after the recognition of the asylum seeker's protection needs, he or she is officially referred to as a refugee and enjoys refugee status, which carries certain rights and obligations according to the legislation of the receiving country.
The practical determination of whether a person is a refugee or not is most often left to certain government agencies within the host country. This can lead to a situation where the country will neither recognize the refugee status of the asylum seekers nor see them as legitimate migrants and treat them as illegal aliens.
On the other hand, fraudulent requests in an environment of lax enforcement could lead to improper classification as refugee, resulting in the diversion of resources from those with a genuine need. The percentage of asylum/refugee seekers who do not meet the international standards of special-needs refugee, and for whom resettlement is deemed proper, varies from country to country. Failed asylum applicants are most often deported, sometimes after imprisonment or detention, as in the United Kingdom.
A claim for asylum may also be made onshore, usually after making an unauthorized arrival. Some governments are tolerant and accepting of onshore asylum claims; other governments will not only refuse such claims, but may actually arrest or detain those who attempt to seek asylum.
Non-governmental organizations concerned with refugees and asylum seekers have pointed out difficulties for displaced persons to seek asylum in industrialized countries. As their immigration policy often focuses on the fight of irregular migration and the strengthening of border controls it deters displaced persons from entering territory in which they could lodge an asylum claim. The lack of opportunities to legally access the asylum procedures can force asylum seekers to undertake often expensive and hazardous attempts at illegal entry.
[edit] Refugee resettlement
State Quota (2001) Year established
United States 80,000 1980
Canada 11,000 1978
Australia 10,000 Unknown
Norway 1,500 Unknown
Sweden 1,375 1950
New Zealand 750 1979
Finland 750 1979
Denmark 517 1989
Netherlands 500 1984
Resettlement involves the assisted movement of refugees who are unable to return home to safe third countries.[30][31] The UNHCR has traditionally seen resettlement as the least preferable of the "durable solutions" to refugee situations.[32] However, in April 2000 the then UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Sadako Ogata, stated:
“ Resettlement can no longer be seen as the least-preferred durable solution; in many cases it is the only solution for refugees ”
—Sadako Ogata, UN High Commissioner for Refugees,April 2000[32]
UNHCR referred more than 121,000 refugees for consideration for resettlement in 2008. This was the highest number for 15 years. In 2007, 98,999 people were referred. UNHCR referred 33,512 refugees from Iraq, 30,388 from Burma/Myanmar and 23,516 from Bhutan in 2008.[31]
In terms of resettlement departures, in 2008, 65,548 refugees were resettled in 26 countries, up from 49,868 in 2007.[31] The largest number of UNHCR-assisted departures were from Thailand (16,807), Nepal (8,165), Syria (7,153), Jordan (6,704) and Malaysia (5,865).[31] Note that these are the countries that refugees were resettled from, not their countries of origin.
A number of third countries run specific resettlement programmes in co-operation with UNHCR. The size of these programmes is shown in the table.[32] The largest programmes are run by the United States, Canada and Australia. A number of European countries run smaller schemes and in 2004 the United Kingdom established its own scheme, known as the Gateway Protection Programme[32] with an initial quota of 500 (2004), which rose to 750 in the financial year 2009/09.[33]
In September 2009, the European Commission unveiled plans for new Joint EU Resettlement Programme. The scheme would involve EU member states deciding together each year which refugees should be given priority. Member states would receive €4,000 from the European Refugee Fund per refugee resettled.[34]
[edit] Displaced women and children
An estimated 80% of refugees are women and children. They often carry the heaviest burden of survival for themselves and their families. Women and adolescent girls in refugee settings are especially vulnerable to exploitation, rape, abuse and other forms of gender-based violence.
Children and youth constitute approximately 50 percent of all refugees worldwide. They are the deliberate targets of abuse, and easy prey to military recruitment and abduction. They typically miss out on years of education, particularly the younger ones. More than 43 million children living in conflict-affected areas don’t have a chance to go to school.
Girls in particular face significant obstacles accessing education. Families who lack funds for school fees, uniforms, books, etc. are often influenced by cultural norms to prioritize education for boys over girls. Girls are typically pulled out of school before boys, often to help with traditional care-giving/work roles including care for younger siblings, gathering firewood and cooking. Early or forced marriage can also derail a girl’s education.
Without an education, refugee women and youth often struggle to support themselves and their families. With refugees displaced for longer periods of time than ever before (68% of all refugees are now displaced for an average of 17 years), the ability for refugees—particularly women and youth— to earn a living and sustain themselves and their families (“livelihoods”) is becoming even more critical. Livelihoods are vital for the social, emotional and economic well-being of displaced persons and are a key way to increase the safety of displaced women and adolescents. Lack of education, minimal job prospects, and disproportionate responsibility at home all limit the livelihood opportunities of women and youth.
On occasion, people who have been uprooted from their homes come to the United States in search of safe haven. They may be detained by the U.S. government, often until their asylum cases are decided—which can amount to days, weeks, months or even years. Many of those detained are women and children who seek asylum in the United States after fleeing from gender- and age-related persecution. Sometimes the children are alone, having fled abusive families or other human rights abuses. Detained women asylum seekers are also particularly vulnerable to abuse in detention. Women and children asylum seekers who reach the United States are often imprisoned and at times subjected to inhumane conditions, abuse and poor medical care, and denied legal representation and other services.
Refugee advocacy organizations, including the Women’s Commission For Refugee Women and Children, focus their programs and advocacy specifically on the needs of refugee women, children and youth. There is also a micro-finance program through the Chand Collection that supports women in refugee camps creating their own small businesses of handicrafts.
[edit] Refugee law
Main article: Refugee law
Under international law, refugees are individuals who:
are outside their country of nationality or habitual residence;
have a well-founded fear of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion; and
are unable or unwilling to avail themselves of the protection of that country, or to return there, for fear of persecution.
Refugee law encompasses both customary law, peremptory norms, and international legal instruments. These include:
The 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees; also referred to as the Geneva Convention;
The 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees;
The 1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa
[edit] Refugee camps
A camp in Guinea for refugees from Sierra Leone.Main article: Refugee camps
A refugee camp is a place built by governments or NGOs (such as the ICRC) to receive refugees. People may stay in these camps, receiving emergency food and medical aid, until it is safe to return to their homes or until they get retrieved by other people outside the camps. In some cases, often after several years, other countries decide it will never be safe to return these people, and they are resettled in "third countries," away from the border they crossed. However, more often than not, refugees are not resettled. In the mean time, they are at risk for disease, child soldiering, terrorist recruitment, and physical and sexual violence.
Globally, about 17 countries (Australia, Benin, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, the Republic of Ireland, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States [5]) regularly accept quota refugees from places such as refugee camps. Usually these are people who have escaped war. In recent years, most quota refugees have come from Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, Liberia, Somalia, and Sudan, which have been in various wars and revolutions, and the former Yugoslavia, due to the Yugoslav wars.
According to Agence France-Presse, Japan accepted just ten people into the country as refugees in 2003, the lowest number since it let in just one in 1997. Despite denying them refugee status, Japan accepted 16 more people on special humanitarian grounds during the year—also the lowest figure since 1997, when it accepted three. In contrast, 336 people applied for refugee status in Japan over the year, the highest figure in two years. Various international organizations, including the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, have asked Japan to accept more refugees.[35]
The United States took in 85,010 for resettlement, according to the UNHCR. New Zealand accepted 1,140 refugees in 1999.
[edit] Boat people
Main article: Boat people
The term "boat people" came into common use in the 1970s with the mass exodus of Vietnamese refugees following the Vietnam War. It is a widely used form of migration for people migrating from Cuba, Haiti, Morocco, Vietnam or Albania. They often risk their lives on dangerously crude and overcrowded boats to escape oppression or poverty in their home nations. Events resulting from the Vietnam War led many people in Cambodia, Laos, and especially Vietnam to become refugees in the late 1970s and 1980s. In 2001, 353 asylum seekers sailing from Indonesia to Australia drowned when their vessel sank.
The main danger to a boat person is that the boat he or she is sailing in may actually be anything that floats and is large enough for passengers. Although such makeshift craft can result in tragedy, in 2003 a small group of 5 Cuban refugees attempted (unsuccessfully, but un-harmed) to reach Florida in a 1950s pickup truck made buoyant by oil barrels strapped to its sides.
Boat people are frequently a source of controversy in the nation they seek to immigrate to, such as the United States, New Zealand, Germany, France, Russia, Canada, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain and Australia. Boat people are often forcibly prevented from landing at their destination, such as under Australia's Pacific Solution (which operated from 2001 until 2008), or they are subjected to mandatory detention after their arrival. Mandatory detention in Australia will cease, announced by the Rudd Labor government in July 2008, unless the person claiming asylum is deemed to pose a risk to the wider community, such as thos ty or health risks.[36][37]
[edit] Historical and contemporary refugee crises
[edit] Refugee situations in the Middle East
[edit] Palestinian refugees
Further information: Palestinian refugees
Following the 1948 proclamation of the State of Israel, the first Arab-Israeli War began. Many Palestinians had already become refugees, and the Palestinian Exodus continued through the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and after the armistice that ended it. The great majority have remained refugees for generations as they were not permitted to return to their homes or to settle in the Arab countries where they lived. The refugee situation and the presence of numerous refugee camps continues to be a point of contention in the Arab-Israeli conflict.
The final estimate of refugee numbers was 711,000 according to the United Nations Conciliation Commission. Palestinian refugees from 1948 and their descendants do not come under the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, but under the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, which created its own criteria for refugee classification. From the UNRWA web site:
Palestine refugees are persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine between June 1946 and May 1948, who lost both their homes and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict. UNRWA's services are available to all those living in its area of operations who meet this definition, who are registered with the Agency and who need assistance. UNRWA's definition of a refugee also covers the descendants of persons who became refugees in 1948.
As such they are the only refugee population legally defined to include descendants of refugees, as well as others who might otherwise be considered internally displaced persons.
As of December 2005, the World Refugee Survey of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants estimates the total number of Palestinian refugees to be 2,966,100.
[edit] Jewish refugees
Further information: Jewish refugees and Jewish exodus from Arab lands
Between the first and second world wars, Jewish immigration to Palestine was encouraged by the nascent Zionist movement but was restricted by the British Mandate government in Palestine. In Europe, Nazi persecution culminated in the Holocaust and the mass murder of many European Jews. The Evian Conference, Bermuda Conference, and others failed to resolve the problem of finding a home for large numbers of Jewish refugees from Nazi-occupied Europe. Following its formation in 1948, according to 1947 UN Partition Plan,Israel adopted the Law of Return, granting Israeli citizenship to any Jewish immigrant. Approximately 700,000 refugees flooded into the country, and were housed in tent cities called ma'abarot. After the dissolution of the USSR, a second surge of 700,000 Russian Jews fled to Israel between 1990 and 1995.
Jews have lived in what are now Arab states at least since the Babylonian captivity (597 BCE). The refusal of the Arab world to accept the existence of a Jewish state led to increased discrimination and violence against the Jews. In 1948, the Arab League declared the Jews enemy citizens. Jewish bank accounts and property was confiscated, Jews were arrested and fired from their jobs, and synagogues were attacked. [38] In the early years after Israeli independence the number of Jews in Arab countries fell steeply: in Yemen, from 55,000 to 4,000; in Iraq from 135,000 to 6,000; in Aden from 8,000 to 800; in Egypt from 80,000 to 50,000; in Libya from 38,000 to 4,000; and in Syria from 30,000 to 5,000. [38]
According to official Arab statistics, 856,000 Jews left their homes in Arab countries from 1948 until the early 1970s. Some 600,000 resettled in Israel. Their descendants, and those of Iranian and Turkish Jews, now number 3.06 million of Israel's 5.4 to 5.8 million Jewish citizens. [39] The plight of the Jews in Arab lands worsened following the 1967 Six-Day War, prompting the exodus of most of the remaining Jewish population. Very few Jews live in Arab countries today.
In 2007, similar resolutions (H.Res.185 and S.Res.85) were proposed to the US Senate and Congress, to:
Make clear that the United States Government supports the position that, as an integral part of any comprehensive peace, the issue of refugees and the mass violations of human rights of minorities in Arab and Muslim countries throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and the Persian Gulf must be resolved in a manner that includes (A) consideration of the legitimate rights of all refugees displaced from Arab and Muslim countries throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and the Persian Gulf; and (B) recognition of the losses incurred by Jews, Christians, and other minority groups as a result of the Arab-Israeli conflict. S. Res. 85
These resolutions were discussed on July 19 2007 at the bicameral Congressional Human Rights Caucus in preparation for voting.
[edit] African refugees in Israel
Since 2003, an estimated 10,000 non-Jewish immigrants from various African countries have illegally entered Israel [40]. Some 600 refugees from the Darfur region of Sudan have been granted refugee status. Another 2,000 refugees from the conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia have been granted temporary resident status on humanitarian grounds. Israel prefers not to recognize them as refugees so as not to offend Eritrea and Ethiopia.[40] The remaining immigrants live in Israel illegally. In 2007, Israel deported 48 refugees back to Egypt after they succeeded in crossing the border, of which twenty were deported back to Sudan by Egyptian authorities, according to Amnesty International. In August 2008 the Israel Defense Forces deported at least another 91 African asylum seekers at the border. Throughout this year, Egyptian police have shot dead 20 African asylum seekers attempting to enter Israel.[41]
[edit] Refugees from the Algerian War
The Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) uprooted more than 2 million Algerians, who were forced to relocate in French camps or to flee to Morocco, Tunisia, and into the Algerian hinterland.
European-descended population,Pieds-Noirs, accounted for 10.4% of the total population of Algeria in 1962. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 of them fled the country in the most massive relocation of population to Europe since the World War II. A motto used in the FLN propaganda designating the Pied-noirs community was "Suitcase or coffin" ("La valise ou le cercueil").[42][43]
[edit] Jordan
Jordan has one of the world's largest immigrant population with some sources putting the immigrant percentage to being 60%. Jordan's religious toleration, political stability, and economic prosperity has made Jordan attractive to those fleeing violence and persecution. Jordan also has a higher quality of life compared to other countries in the region with high literacy rates, excellent healthcare infrastructure, and a relatively liberal social and economic environment. Jordan has a large immigrant population. Palestinian refugees number almost half of Jordan's population, however they have assimilated into Jordanian society. Iraqi refugees number between 750,000 and 1 million with most living in Amman. Jordan also has Armenian, Chechen, and Circassian minorities.
[edit] Lebanon
It is estimated that some 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-war population, were displaced from their homes during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–90).[44]
The 2006 Lebanon War displaced approximately one million Lebanese[45] and approximately 500,000 Israelis, although most were able to return to their homes.[46] Lebanese desire to emigrate has increased since the war. Over a fifth of Shias, a quarter of Sunnis, and nearly half of Maronites have expressed the desire to leave Lebanon. Nearly a third of such Maronites have already submitted visa applications to foreign embassies, and another 60,000 Christians have already fled, as of April 2007. Lebanese Christians are concerned that their influence is waning, fear the apparent rise of radical Islam, and worry of potential Sunni-Shia rivalry.[47]
[edit] Western Sahara
It is estimated that more than 150,000 Sahrawis – people from the disputed territory of Western Sahara – have lived in five large refugee camps near Tindouf in the Algerian part of the Sahara Desert since 1975.[48][49] The UNHCR and WFP are presently engaged in supporting what they describe as the "90,000 most vulnerable" refugees, giving no estimate for total refugee numbers.[50]
[edit] Nagorno Karabakh
The Nagorno Karabakh conflict has resulted in the displacement of 528,000 (this figure does not include new born children of these IDPs) Azerbaijanis from Armenian occupied territories including Nagorno Karabakh, and 220,000 Azeris and 18,000 Kurds fled from Armenia to Azerbaijan from 1988 to 1989.[51] 280,000 persons—virtually all ethnic Armenians—fled Azerbaijan during the 1988–1993 war over the disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh.[52] By the time both Azerbaijan and Armenia had finally agreed to a ceasefire in 1994, an estimated 17,000 people had been killed, 50,000 had been injured, and over a million had been displaced.[53]
[edit] Turkey
Between 1984 and 1999, the PKK and the Turkish military engaged in open war, and much of the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, with Kurdish civilians moving to local defensible centers such as Diyarbakır, Van, and Şırnak, as well as to the cities of western Turkey and even to western Europe. The causes of the depopulation included PKK atrocities against Kurdish clans they could not control, the poverty of the southeast, and the Turkish state's military operations.[54] Human Rights Watch has documented many instances where the Turkish military forcibly evacuated villages, destroying houses and equipment to prevent the return of the inhabitants. An estimated 3,000 Kurdish villages in Turkey were virtually wiped from the map, representing the displacement of more than 378,000 people.[55][56][57][58]
[edit] Refugees from the Iraq wars
Main article: Refugees of Iraq
The Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988, the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the first Gulf War and subsequent conflicts all generated hundreds of thousands if not millions of refugees. Iran also provided asylum for 1,400,000 Iraqi refugees who had been uprooted as a result of the Persian Gulf War (1990–91). At least one million Iraqi Kurds were displaced during the Al-Anfal Campaign (1986–1989).
The current Iraq war has generated millions of refugees and internally displaced persons. As of 2007 more Iraqis have lost their homes and become refugees than the population of any other country. Over 4,700,000 people, more than 16% of the Iraqi population, have become uprooted.[59] Of these, about 2 million have fled Iraq and flooded other countries, and 2.7 million are estimated to be refugees inside Iraq, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.[60][61][62] Only 1% of the total Iraqi displaced population was estimated to be in the Western countries.[63]
Roughly 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled, the U.N. said. Most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return. All kinds of people, from university professors to bakers, have been targeted by militias, insurgents and criminals. An estimated 331 school teachers were slain in the first four months of 2006, according to Human Rights Watch, and at least 2,000 Iraqi doctors have been killed and 250 kidnapped since the 2003 U.S. invasion.[64] Iraqi refugees in Syria and Jordan live in impoverished communities with little international attention to their plight and little legal protection.[65] In Syria alone an estimated 50,000 Iraqi girls and women, many of them widows, are forced into prostitution just to survive.[66][67]
According to Washington based Refugees International, out of the 4.2 million refugees fewer than 800 have been allowed into the US since the 2003 invasion. Sweden had accepted 18,000 and Australia had resettled almost 6,000.[68] By 2006 Sweden had granted protection to more Iraqis than all the other EU Member States combined. However, and following repeated unanswered calls to its European partners for greater solidarity, July 2007 saw Sweden introduce a more restrictive policy towards Iraqi asylum seekers, which is expected to reduce the recognition rate in 2008.[69]
As of September 2007 Syria had decided to implement a strict visa regime to limit the number of Iraqis entering the country at up to 5,000 per day, cutting the only accessible escape route for thousands of refugees fleeing the civil war in Iraq. A government decree that took effect on 10 September 2007 bars Iraqi passport holders from entering Syria except for businessmen and academics. Until then, the Syria was the only country that had resisted strict entry regulations for Iraqis.[70][71]
[edit] Religious minorities in the Middle East
Although Assyrian Christians represent less than 5% of the total Iraqi population, they make up 40% of the refugees fleeing Iraq, according to U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees.[72][73] In the 16th century, Christians were half the population of Iraq.[74] In 1987, the last Iraqi census counted 1.4 million Christians.[75] But as the current war has radicalized Islamic sensibilities, Christians have seen their total numbers slump to about 500,000 today, of whom 250,000 live in Baghdad.[76]
Furthermore, the small Mandaean and Yazidi communities are at the risk of elimination due to ethnic cleansing by Islamic militants.[77][78] Entire neighborhoods in Baghdad were ethnically cleansed by Shia and Sunni Militias.[79][80] Satellite shows ethnic cleansing in Iraq was key factor in "surge" success.[81]
The US government position on refugees states that there is repression of religious minorities in the Middle East and in Pakistan such as Christians, Hindus, as well as Ahmadi, and Zikri denominations of Islam. In Sudan where Islam is the state religion, Muslims dominate the Government and restrict activities of Christians, practitioners of traditional African indigenous religions and other non-Muslims [6]. The question of Jewish, Christian and other refugees from Arab and Muslim countries was introduced in March 2007 in the US congress [7].
In the Islamic republic of Iran, Iranian Christians decry minority religions' lack of freedom in Islamic countries [8], while Bahá'ís are also fleeing religious persecution [9].
[edit] Refugee movements in Asia
[edit] Afghanistan
From the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 through the early 1990s, the Afghan War (1978–92) caused more than six million refugees to flee to the neighboring countries of Pakistan and Iran, making Afghanistan the greatest refugee-producing country. At the peak of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, close to seven million Afghan refugees sought refuge within Pakistan, making Pakistan the only country to have hosted such a huge number of refugees. The number of refugees fluctuated with the waves of the war, with thousands more fleeing after the Taliban takeover of 1996. The U.S. invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and continued ethnic cleansing and reprisals also caused additional displacement. Though there has been some repatriation sponsored by the U.N. from Iran and Pakistan, a 2007 UNHCR census identified over two million Afghan refugees still living in Pakistan alone.
Since late April 2007, the Iranian government has forcibly deported back to Afghanistan nearly 100,000 registered and unregistered Afghans living and working in Iran. The forceful evictions of the refugees, who have lived in Iran and Pakistan for nearly three decades, are part of the two countries' larger plans to repatriate all Afghan refugees within a few years. Iran says it will send one million by next March, and Pakistan announced that all 2,400,000 Afghan refugees, most living in camps, must return home by 2009. Experts say it will be 'disastrous' for Afghanistan.[82][83]
[edit] The Partition of 1947
The partition of the Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947 resulted in the largest human movement in history: an exchange of 18,000,000 Hindus and Sikhs (from Bangladesh-65% and Pakistan-35%) for Muslims (from India). During the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, owing to the civil war in Bangladesh (formerly east Pakistan) and Operation Searchlight, more than ten million Bengalis fled to neighboring India.
[edit] Bengali refugees in India in 1971
As a result of the Bangladesh Liberation War, on 27 March 1971, Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, expressed full support of her Government to the Bangladeshi struggle for freedom. The Bangladesh-India border was opened to allow panic-stricken Bengalis safe shelter in India. The governments of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura established refugee camps along the border. Exiled Bangladeshi army officers and the Indian military immediately started using these camps for recruitment and training members of Mukti Bahini. During the Bangladesh War of Independence around 10 million Bengalis fled the country to escape the killings and atrocities committed by the Pakistan Army. Bengali refugees known as '"Chakmas"' in India.
[edit] The Himalayas
After the 1959 Tibetan exodus, there are more than 150,000 Tibetans who live in India, many in settlements in Dharamsala and Mysore, and Nepal. These include people who have escaped over the Himalayas from Tibet, as well as their children and grandchildren. In India the overwhelming majority of Tibetans born in India are still stateless and carry a document called an Identity Card issued by the Indian government in lieu of a passport. This document states the nationality of the holder as Tibetan. It is a document that is frequently rejected as a valid travel document by many customs and immigrations departments. The Tibetan refugees also own a Green Book issued by the Tibetan Government in Exile for rights and duties towards this administration.
In 1991–92, Bhutan expelled roughly 100,000 ethnic Nepalis, most of whom have been living in seven refugee camps in eastern Nepal ever since. In March 2008, this population began a multiyear resettlement to third countries including the United States,New Zealand, Denmark and Australia. At present, the United States is working towards resettling more than 60,000 of these refugees in the US as a third country settlement programme.[84]
Meanwhile, as many as 200,000 Nepalese were displaced during the Maoist insurgency and Nepalese Civil War which ended in 2006.
More than 3 million Pakistani civilians have been displaced by War in North-West Pakistan (2004–Present) between the Pakistani government and Taliban militants.[85]
[edit] Sri Lankan Tamils
The civil war in Sri Lanka (1983 to the 2009) has generated millions of internally displaced as well as refugees. Sri Lanka Tamils have fled to India, Europe (mostly France, Denmark, the United Kingdom, and Germany), and Canada (over 103,625 people).
[edit] Kashmir
Some 300,000 Kashmiri Pandit Hindus (conservative estimate) have been internally displaced f.[86]
[edit] Tajikistan Civil War
Since 1991, much of the country's non-Muslim population, including Russians and Jews, have fled Tajikistan due to severe poverty, instability and Tajikistan Civil War (1992–1997).[87] In 1992, most of the country’s Jewish population was evacuated to Israel.[88] By the end of the civil war Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country.[89]
[edit] Uzbekistan
In 1989, after bloody pogroms against the Meskhetian Turks in Central Asia's Ferghana Valley, nearly 90,000 Meskhetian Turks left Uzbekistan.[90][91]
[edit] Southeast Asia (Vietnam War)
Following the communist takeovers in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos in 1975, about three million people attempted to escape in the subsequent decades. With massive influx of refugees daily, the resources of the receiving countries were severely strained. The plight of the boat people became an international humanitarian crisis. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) set up refugee camps in neighboring countries to process the boat people. The budget of the UNHCR increased from $80 million in 1975 to $500 million in 1980. Partly for its work in Indochina, the UNHCR was awarded the 1981 Nobel Peace Prize.
Large numbers of Vietnamese refugees came into existence after 1975 when South Vietnam fell to the communist forces. Many tried to escape, some by boat, thus giving rise to the phrase "boat people." The Vietnamese refugees emigrated to Hong Kong, France, the United States, Canada, Australia, and other countries, creating sizeable expatriate communities, notably in the United States.
Survivors of the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia fled across the border into Thailand after the Vietnamese invasion of 1978–79. Approximately 300,000 of these people were eventually resettled in the United States, France, Canada, and Australia between 1979 and 1992, when the camps were closed and the remaining people repatriated.
The Mien or Yao recently lived in northern Vietnam, northern Laos and northern Thailand. In 1975, the Pathet Lao forces began seeking reprisal for the involvement of many Mien as soldiers in the CIA-sponsored Secret War in Laos. As a token of appreciation to the Mien and Hmong people who served in the CIA secret army, the United States accepted many of the refugees as naturalized citizens (Mien American). Many more Hmong continue to seek asylum in neighboring Thailand [10].
Due to the persecution of the ethnic Karen, Karenni and other minority populations in Burma (Myanmar) significant numbers of refugees live along the Thai border in camps of up to 100,000 people.
Muslim ethnic groups from Burma, the Rohingya and other Arakanese have been living in camps in Bangladesh since the 1990s [11] [12].
[edit] Refugee movements in Africa
Since the 1950s, many nations in Africa have suffered civil wars and ethnic strife, thus generating a massive number of refugees of many different nationalities and ethnic groups. The division of Africa into European colonies in 1885, along which lines the newly independent nations of the 1950s and 1960s drew their borders, has been cited as a major reason why Africa has been so plagued with intrastate warfare. The number of refugees in Africa increased from 860,000 in 1968 to 6,775,000 by 1992 (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2004). By the end of 2004, that number had dropped to 2,748,400 refugees, according to the United Nations High Commission for Refugees [13]. (That figure does not include internally displaced persons, who do not cross international borders and so do not fit the official definition of refugee.)
Many refugees in Africa cross into neighboring countries to find haven; often, African countries are simultaneously countries of origin for refugees and countries of asylum for other refugees. The Democratic Republic of Congo, for instance, was the country of origin for 462,203 refugees at the end of 2004, but a country of asylum for 199,323 other refugees.
Countries in Africa from where 5,000 or more refugees originated as of the end of 2004, arranged in descending order of numbers of refugees are listed below. (UNHCR, 2004 Global Refugee Trends, Table 3.) The largest number of refugees are from Sudan and have fled either the longstanding and recently concluded Sudanese Civil War or the Darfur conflict and are located mainly in Chad, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Kenya.
Angola: 228,838
Burundi: 485,764
Cameroon: 7,629
Central African Republic: 31,069
Chad: 52,663
Côte d'Ivoire: 23,655
Democratic Republic of Congo: 462,203
Eritrea: 131,119
Ethiopia: 63,105
Ghana: 14,767
Liberia: 335,467
Nigeria: 23,888
Republic of the Congo: 28,152
Rwanda: 63,808
Senegal: 8,332
Sierra Leone: 41,801
Somalia: 389,272
Sudan: 930,612
Togo: 10,819
Uganda: 31,963
Zimbabwe: 9,568
[edit] Angola
Decolonisation during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass exodus of European-descended settlers out of Africa – especially from North Africa (1.6 million European pieds noirs),[92] Congo, Mozambique and Angola.[93] By the mid-1970s, the Portugal's African territories were lost, and nearly one million Portuguese or persons of Portuguese descent left those territories (mostly Portuguese Angola and Mozambique) as destitute refugees – the retornados.[94]
The Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), one of the largest and deadliest Cold War conflicts, erupted shortly after and spread out across the newly-independent country. At least one million persons were killed, four million were displaced internally and another half million fled as refugees.[95]
[edit] Uganda
In the 1970s Uganda and other East African nations implemented racist policies that targeted the Asian population of the region. Uganda under Idi Amin's leadership was particularly most virulent in its anti-Asian policies, eventually resulting in the expulsion and ethnic cleansing of Uganda's Asian minority.[96] Uganda's 80,000 Asians were mostly Indians born in the country. India had refused to accept them.[97] Most of the expelled Indians eventually settled in the United Kingdom, Canada and in the United States.[98]
[edit] Great Lakes refugee crisis
Refugee camp in Zaire, 1994Main article: Great Lakes refugee crisis
In the aftermath of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, over two million people fled into neighboring countries, in particular Zaire. The refugee camps were soon controlled by the former government and Hutu militants who used the camps as bases to launch attacks against the new government in Rwanda. Little action was taken to resolve the situation and the crisis did not end until Rwanda-supported rebels forced the refugees back across the border at the beginning of the First Congo War.
[edit] Darfur
Some 2.5, million roughly one-third the population of the Darfur area, have been forced to flee their homes after attacks by Janjaweed Arab militia backed by Sudanese troops during the ongoing Darfur conflict in western Sudan.[99][100]
[edit] Refugee movements in and within Europe
[edit] European Union
The European Union is developing a common system for immigration and asylum and a single external border control strategy. This involves categorising refugees as separate from economic migrants – i.e. as political migrants which includes the categories illegal immigrants, asylum seekers, and as refugees.
According to the European Council on Refugees and Exiles, a network of European refugee-assisting non-governmental organizations (NGOs), huge differences exist between national asylum systems in Europe, making the asylum system a 'lottery' for refugees. For example, Iraqis who flee their home country and end up in Germany have a 85% of being recognised as a refugee and those who apply for asylum in Slovenia do not get a protection status at all. [101] A phenomenon referred to as 'secondary movement' describes the travelling of asylum seekers from one country of the European Union to another.
In France, helping an illegal immigrant (providing shelter, for example) is prohibited by a law passed on December 27, 1994 [14]. The law was heavily criticized by (NGOs) such as the CIMADE and the GISTI, left-wing political parties such as the Greens and the Communists, and trade unions such as the magistrates' Syndicat de la magistrature.
The Turkish newspaper Hürriyet published stories in July 2004 and May 2006 that Hellenic Coast Guard ships were caught on film cruising as near as a few hundred meters off the Turkish coast and abandoning clandestine immigrants to the sea. This practice allegedly resulted in the drowning of six people between Chios and Karaburun Peninsula on 26 September 2006 while three others disappeared and 31 were saved by Turkish gendarmes and fishermen.[102] However, there are numerous non-Turkish claims and testimonies that Turkish authorities and/or citizens lead immigrants through the sea, often resulting to the abandonment and sometimes drowning of said immigrants.
A tough new EU immigration law detaining illegal immigrants for up to 18 months before deportation has triggered outrage across Latin America, with Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez threatening to cut off oil exports to Europe.[103][104]
[edit] Hungary
In 1956–57 following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 nearly 200,000 persons, about two percent of the population of Hungary, fled as refugees to Austria and West Germany.[105]
[edit] Czechoslovakia
The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 was followed by a wave of emigration, unseen before and stopped shortly after (estimate: 70,000 immediately, 300,000 in total),[106] typically of highly qualified people left for Austria or West Germany .
[edit] Cyprus
It is estimated that 40% of the Greek population of Cyprus, as well as over half of the Turkish Cypriot population, were displaced by the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974. The figures for internally displaced Cypriots varies, the United Peacekeeping force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) estimates 165,000 Greek Cypriots and 45,000 Turkish Cypriots. The UNHCR registers slightly higher figures of 200,000 and 65,000 respectively, being partly based on official Cypriot statistics which register children of displaced families as refugees.[107] The separation of the two communities via the UN patrolled Green Line prohibited the return of all internally displaced people.
[edit] Balkans
Following the Greek Civil War (1946–1949) hundreds of thousands of Greeks and Ethnic Macedonians were expelled or fled the country. The number of refugees ranged from 35,000 to over 213,000. Over 28,000 children were evacuated by the Partisans to the Eastern Bloc and the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. This left thousands of Greeks and Aegean Macedonians spread across the world.
The forced assimilation campaign of the late 1980s directed against ethnic Turks resulted in the emigration of some 300,000 Bulgarian Turks to Turkey.
Beginning in 1991, political upheavals in the Balkans such as the breakup of Yugoslavia, displaced about 2,700,000 people by mid-1992, of which over 700,000 of them sought asylum in Europe.[108][109] In 1999, about one million Albanians escaped from Serbian persecution.
Today there are still thousands of refugees and internally displaced persons in the Balkan Region who cannot return to their homes. Most of them are Serbs who cannot return to Kosovo, and who still live in refugee camps in Serbia today. Over 200,000 Serbs and other non-Albanian minorities fled or were expelled from Kosovo after the Kosovo War in 1999.[110][111]
Refugees and IDPs in Serbia form between 7% and 7.5% of its population – about half a million refugees sought refuge in the country following the series of Yugoslav wars (from Croatia mainly, to an extent Bosnia and Herzegovina too and the IDPs from Kosovo, which are the most numerous at over 200,000).[112] Serbia has the largest refugee population in Europe.[113]
[edit] Chechnya
From 1992 ongoing conflict has taken place in Chechenya, Caucasus due to independence proclaimed by this republic in 1991 which is not accepted by the Russian Federation or any other state in the world. As a consequence about 2 million people have been displaced and still cannot return to their homes. At the end of the Soviet era, ethnic Russians comprised about 23% of the population (269,000 in 1989). Due to widespread lawlessness and ethnic cleansing under the government of Dzhokhar Dudayev most non-Chechens (and many Chechens as well) fled the country during the 1990s or were killed.[114][115]
[edit] Georgia
The forced displacement and ethnic-cleansing of more than 250,000 people, mostly Georgians but some others too, from Abkhazia during the conflict and after in 1993 and 1998.[116]
As a result of 1991–1992 South Ossetia War, about 100,000 ethnic Ossetians fled South Ossetia and Georgia proper, most across the border into North Ossetia. A further 23,000 ethnic Georgians fled South Ossetia and settled in other parts of Georgia.[117]
The United Nations estimated 100,000 Georgians have been uprooted as a result of the 2008 South Ossetia war; some 30,000 residents of South Ossetia fled into the neighboring Russian province of North Ossetia.[118]
[edit] Refugee movements in the Americas
More than one million Salvadorans were displaced during the Salvadoran Civil War from 1975 to 1982. About half went to the United States, most settling in the Los Angeles area. There was also a large exodus of Guatemalans during the 1980s, trying to escape from the Civil War and genocide there as well. These people went to Southern Mexico and the U.S.
From 1991 through 1994, following the military coup d'état against President Jean-Bertrand Aristide, thousands of Haitians fled violence and repression by boat. Although most were repatriated to Haiti by the U.S. government, others entered the United States as refugees. Haitians were primarily regarded as economic migrants from the grinding poverty of Haiti, the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere.
See also: Mariel boatlift
The victory of the forces led by Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution led to a large exodus of Cubans between 1959 and 1980. Dozens of Cubans yearly continue to risk the waters of the Straits of Florida seeking better economic and political conditions in the U.S. In 1999 the highly publicized case of six year old Elián González brought the covert migration to international attention. Measures by both governments have attempted to address the issue; the U.S. instituted a wet feet, dry feet policy allowing refuge to those travelers who manage to complete their journey, and the Cuban government have periodically allowed for mass migration by organizing leaving posts. The most famous of these agreed migrations was the Mariel boatlift of 1980.
Colombia has one of the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), with estimates ranging from 2.6 to 4.3 million people, due to the ongoing Colombian armed conflict. The larger figure is cumulative since 1985.[119][120] It is now estimated by the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants that there are about 150,000 Colombians in "refugee-like situations" in the United States, not recognized as refugees or subject to any formal protection.
During the Vietnam War, many U.S. citizens who were conscientious objectors and wished to avoid the draft sought political asylum in Canada. President Jimmy Carter issued an amnesty. Since 1975, the U.S. has resettled approximately 2.6 million refugees, with nearly 77% being either Indochinese or citizens of the former Soviet Union. Since the enactment of the Refugee Act of 1980, annual admissions figures have ranged from a high of 207,116 in 1980 to a low of 27,100 in 2002.
Currently, ten national voluntary agencies resettle refugees nationwide on behalf of the U.S. government: Church World Service, Ethiopian Community Development Council, Episcopal Migration Ministries, Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, International Rescue Committee, US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service, United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, World Relief Corporation and State of Iowa, Bureau of Refugee Services.
The U.S. Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) funds a number of organizations that provide technical assistance to voluntary agencies and local refugee resettlement organizations. RefugeeWorks, headquartered in Baltimore, MD., is ORR's training and technical assistance arm for employment and self-sufficiency activities, for example. This nonprofit organization assists refugee service providers in their efforts to help refugees achieve self-sufficiency. RefugeeWorks publishes white papers, newsletters and reports on refugee employment topics. [121]
[edit] Climate refugees
Main article: Climate refugee
Although they do not fit the definition of refugees set out in the UN Convention, people displaced by the effects of climate change have often been termed "climate refugees"[122] or "climate change refugees".[123]
Sea level rise and raising global temperatures threaten food security and state sovereignty for many around the world. Higher temperatures are expected to further raise sea level by expanding ocean water, melting mountain glaciers and small ice caps, and causing portions of Greenland and the Antarctic ice sheets to melt. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) estimates that the global average sea level will rise between 0.6 and 2 feet (0.18 to 0.59 meters) in the next century[124]. While other sources suggest that this conclusion is too conservative. Science and Nature Geoscience used empirical data from last century to project that sea levels could be up to 5 feet higher (0.5 to 1.4 meters) in 2100 and rising 6 inches per decade [125][126]. These models provide evidence that people that call low lying atolls, islands, and the Arctic home will become refugees.
In tropical and subtropical regions and even in temperate zones where crops and livestock production play an essential role in a regions economy are highly susceptible to global temperature rise and in turn food security crises [127]. Severe drought and hunger related deaths will become more prevalent, causing “unprecedented rates of migration from north to south, from rural to urban areas, and from landlocked to coastal countries” as was seen between the late 1960s to the early 1990s by the Sahal.[127]
[edit] Refugees as security threats
Very rarely, refugees have been used and recruited as refugee warriors,[128] and the humanitarian aid directed at refugee relief has very rarely been utilized to fund the acquisition of arms.[129] Support from a refugee-receiving state has rarely been used to enable refugees to mobilize militarily, enabling conflict to spread across borders. [130]
[edit] Common refugee medical problems
Apart from physical wounds or starvation, a large percentage of refugees develop symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or depression. These long-term mental problems can severely impede the functionality of the person in everyday situations; it makes matters even worse for displaced persons who are confronted with a new environment and challenging situations. They are also at high risk for suicide.[131]
Among other symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder involves anxiety, over-alertness, sleeplessness, chronic fatigue syndrome, motor difficulties, failing short term memory, amnesia, nightmares and sleep-paralysis. Flashbacks are characteristic to the disorder: The patient experiences the traumatic event, or pieces of it, again and again. Depression is also characteristic for PTSD-patients and may also occur without accompanying PTSD.
PTSD was diagnosed in 34.1% of Palestinian children, most of whom were refugees, males, and working. The participants were 1,000 children aged 12 to 16 years from governmental, private, and United Nations Relief Work Agency UNRWA schools in East Jerusalem and various governorates in the West Bank.[132]
Another study showed that 28.3% of Bosnian refugee women had symptoms of PTSD three or four years after their arrival in Sweden. These women also had significantly higher risks of symptoms of depression, anxiety, and psychological distress than Swedish-born women. For depression the odds ratio was 9.50 among Bosnian women.[133]
A study by the Department of Pediatrics and Emergency Medicine at the Boston University School of Medicine demonstrated that twenty percent of Sudanese refugee minors living in the United States had a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder. They were also more likely to have worse scores on all the Child Health Questionnaire subscales.[134]
Many more studies illustrate the problem. One meta-study was conducted by the psychiatry department of Oxford University at Warneford Hospital in the United Kingdom. Twenty surveys were analyzed, providing results for 6,743 adult refugees from seven countries. In the larger studies, 9% were diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder and 5% with major depression, with evidence of much psychiatric co-morbidity. Five surveys of 260 refugee children from three countries yielded a prevalence of 11% for post-traumatic stress disorder. According to this study, refugees resettled in Western countries could be about ten times more likely to have PTSD than age-matched general populations in those countries. Worldwide, tens of thousands of refugees and former refugees resettled in Western countries probably have post-traumatic stress disorder.[135]
[edit] Exploitation
Refugee populations consist of people who are terrified and are away from familiar surroundings. There can be instances of exploitation at the hands of enforcement officials, citizens of the host country, and even United Nations peacekeepers. Instances of human rights violations, child labor, mental and physical trauma/torture, violence-related trauma, and sexual exploitation, especially of children, are not entirely unknown. In many refugee camps in three war-torn West African countries, Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia, young girls were found to be exchanging sex for money, a handful of fruit, or even a bar of soap. Most of these girls were between 13 and 18 years of age. In most cases, if the girls had been forced to stay, they would had been forced into marriage. They became become pregnant on average around the age of 15.This happened as recently as in 2001. Parents tended to turn a blind eye because sexual exploitation had become a ‘‘mechanism of survival’’ in these camps.[136]
[edit] World Refugee Day
World Refugee Day occurs on June 20. The day was created in 2000 by a special United Nations General Assembly Resolution. June 20 had previously been commemorated as African Refugee Day in a number of African countries.
In the United Kingdom World Refugee Day is celebrated as part of Refugee Week. Refugee Week is a nationwide festival designed to promote understanding and to celebrate the cultural contributions of refugees, and features many events such as music, dance and theatre.
In the Roman Catholic Church, the World Day of Migrants and Refugees is celebrated in January each year, having been instituted in 1914 by Pope Pius X.
"Nothing At All" is a folk song by Bob Thomas and Huw Pudner about the plight of a refugee being forced back to his own country against his will.
[edit] See also
Asylum shopping
Boat people
Climate refugee
Diaspora, a mass movement of population, usually forced by war or natural disaster
Displaced person
Emergency evacuation
Ethnic cleansing
Forced migration
Homo sacer
Human migration
Internally displaced person
List of famous refugees
Look up refugee in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Mandatory detention
Merhan Karimi Nasseri, an Iranian refugee who lived in Charles de Gaulle Airport
Migrant literature
Nansen passport
Naturalization (includes denaturalization laws)
Population transfer
Right of asylum (and political asylum)
Stateless persons
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
World War II evacuation and expulsion
[edit] Notes
1.^ 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
2.^ Refugees by Numbers 2006 edition, UNHCR
3.^ Publications/Statistics, UNRWA, update as of 31 March 2006
4.^ Framework for Durable Solutions for Refugees and Other Persons of Concern, UNHCR Core Group on Durable Solutions, May 2003, p. 5
5.^ Education in Azerbaijan. UNICEF.
6.^ By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim.
7.^ Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922, (Princeton, N.J: Darwin Press, c1995
8.^ Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912-1924. Universiteit Leiden.
9.^ a b [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1938/nansen-history.html Nansen International Office for Refugee: The Nobel Peace Prize 1938], nobelprize.org
10.^ Old fears over new faces, The Seattle Times, September 21, 2006
11.^ U S Constitution - The Immigration Act of 1924
12.^ Forced displacement of Czech population under Nazis in 1938 and 1943, Radio Prague
13.^ Spanish Civil War fighters look back
14.^ Statistisches Bundesamt, Die Deutschen Vertreibungsverluste, Wiesbaden, 1958; Alfred de Zayas, "Forced Resettlement", "Population, Expulsion and Transfer", "Repatriation" in Encyclopaedia of Public International Law, North Holland Publishers, Vols. 1–5, Amsterdam 1993–2003; Norman Naimark, The Russians in Germany, Harvard University Press, 1995; Alfred de Zayas, Nemesis at Potsdam, Routledge, London and Boston, 1977; Alfred de Zayas, "A Terrible Revenge" Palgrave/Macmillan 2006
15.^ The United States and Forced Repatriation of Soviet Citizens, 1944-47 by Mark Elliott Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 88, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 253–275
16.^ Repatriation -- The Dark Side of World War II
17.^ Forced Repatriation to the Soviet Union: The Secret Betrayal
18.^ Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers
19.^ Forced Labor at Ford Werke AG during the Second World War
20.^ The Nazi Ostarbeiter (Eastern Worker) Program
21.^ Soviet Prisoners of War: Forgotten Nazi Victims of World War II
22.^ Soviet Prisoners-of-War
23.^ The warlords: Joseph Stalin
24.^ Remembrance (Zeithain Memorial Grove)
25.^ Patriots ignore greatest brutality
26.^ Joseph Stalin killer file
27.^ Forced migration in the 20th century
28.^ [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0850078.html "United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration," The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, © 1994, 2000-2005, on Infoplease, © 2000–2006 Pearson Education, publishing as Infoplease. (accessed 13 October 2006)
29.^ "International Refugee Organization %u2014 Infoplease.com." The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, © 1994, 2000–2005, on Infoplease, © 2000–2006 Pearson Education, publishing as Infoplease. (accessed 13 October 2006)
30.^ "What is resettlement? A new challenge". UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/pages/4a1d0a9e6.html. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
31.^ a b c d "Resettlement: A new beginning in a third country". UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/pages/4a16b1676.html. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
32.^ a b c d "Understanding Resettlement to the UK: A Guide to the Gateway Protection Programme". Refugee Council on behalf of the Resettlement Inter-Agency Partnership. June 2004. http://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/OneStopCMS/Core/CrawlerResourceServer.aspx?resource=3140698F-6646-468B-AD6E-217439B9ACB5&mode=link&guid=eca93211dd1d4c9585770f026739c401. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
33.^ Evans, Olga; Murray, Rosemary (February 2009). "The Gateway Protection Programme: An evaluation". Home Office Research Report 12. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs09/horr12c.pdf.
34.^ "EU plans to admit more refugees". BBC News. 2009-09-02. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8233187.stm. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
35.^ Japan's refugee policy
36.^ Sweeping changes to mandatory detention announced: ABC News 29/7/2008
37.^ Australia abandons asylum policy: BBC News 29/7/2008
38.^ a b All I wanted was justice http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/941518.html
39.^ Schwartz, Adi. "All I wanted was justice" Haaretz. 10 January 2008.
40.^ a b 1,000 Africans estimated to have infiltrated Israel in 2 weeks, Tani Goldstein, Published: 02.18.08, Ynet news
41.^ http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L490874.htm
42.^ On French immigrants, the words left unsaid
43.^ For Pieds-Noirs, the Anger Endures
44.^ Lebanon: Haven for foreign militants
45.^ Lebanon Higher Relief Council (2007). "Lebanon Under Siege". Retrieved March 5, 2007.
46.^ "Middle East crisis: Facts and Figures". BBC News Online. 2006-08-31. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5257128.stm. Retrieved 2008-07-13.
47.^ Michael Hirst (2007-04-03). "Rise in radical Islam last straw for Lebanon's Christians". Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/04/01/wleb01.xml.
48.^ EU donates €10 million to Western Sahara refugees
49.^ Refugees and internally displaced persons
50.^ Western Sahara: Lack of donor funds threatens humanitarian projects
51.^ De Waal, Black Garden, p. 285
52.^ Refugees and displaced persons in Azerbaijan
53.^ Europe's Forgotten Refugees
54.^ Radu, Michael. (2001). "The Rise and Fall of the PKK", Orbis. 45(1):47–64.
55.^ Turkey: "Still Critical" - Introduction
56.^ DISPLACED AND DISREGARDED: Turkey's Failing Village Return Program
57.^ Prospects in 2005 for Internally Displaced Kurds in Turkey
58.^ HRW Turkey Reports
See also: Report D612, October, 1994, "Forced Displacement of Ethnic Kurds" (A Human Rights Watch Publication).
59.^ [http://www.unhcr.org/iraq.html UNHCR | Iraq]
60.^ Iraq refugees chased from home, struggle to cope
61.^ U.N.: 100,000 Iraq refugees flee monthly. Alexander G. Higgins, Boston Globe, November 3, 2006
62.^ Anthony Arnove: Billboarding the Iraq disaster, Asia Times March 20, 2007
63.^ Iraqi refugees facing desperate situation, Amnesty International
64.^ 40% of middle class believed to have fled crumbling nation
65.^ Iraq's middle class escapes, only to find poverty in Jordan
66.^ '50,000 Iraqi refugees' forced into prostitution
67.^ Iraqi refugees forced into prostitution
68.^ US in Iraq for 'another 50 years', The Australian, June 2, 2007
69.^ "Five years on Europe is still ignoring its responsibilities towards Iraqi refugees" (PDF). ECRE. http://www.ecre.org/files/ECRE_Survey_Iraq_2008.pdf. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
70.^ Syria moves to restrain Iraqi refugee influx
71.^ Syria to restricts Iraqi refugee influx
72.^ Christians, targeted and suffering, flee Iraq
73.^ Terror campaign targets Chaldean church in Iraq
74.^ UNHCR |Iraq
75.^ Christians live in fear of death squads
76.^ 'We're staying and we will resist'
77.^ Crawford, Angus (2007-03-04). "Iraq's Mandaeans 'face extinction'". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6412453.stm.
78.^ Damon, Arwa; Mohammed Tawfeeq and Raja Razek (2007-08-15). "Iraqi officials: Truck bombings killed at least 500". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/08/15/iraq.main/index.html?iref=topnews.
79.^ Iraq is disintegrating as ethnic cleansing takes hold
80.^ "There is ethnic cleansing"
81.^ Satellite images show ethnic cleanout in Iraq, Reuters, September 19, 2008
82.^ Iranian Deportations Raise Fears of Humanitarian Crisis in Afghanistan
83.^ To root out Taliban, Pakistan to expel 2.4 million Afghans
84.^ Bhaumik, Subir (November 7, 2007). "Bhutan refugees are 'intimidated'". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7082586.stm. Retrieved 2008-04-25.
85.^ 3.4 million displaced by Pakistan fighting. United Press International. May 30, 2009.
86.^ India, The World Factbook. Retrieved 20 May 2006.
87.^ Russians left behind in Central Asia, by Robert Greenall, BBC News, 23 November 2005.
88.^ For Jews in Tajikistan, the end of history is looming
89.^ Tajikistan: rising from the ashes of civil war United Nations
90.^ Focus on Mesketian Turks
91.^ Meskhetian Turk Communities around the World
92.^ For Pieds-Noirs, the Anger Endures, The New York Times, April 6, 1988
93.^ Flight from Angola, The Economist , August 16, 1975
94.^ Portugal - Emigration, Eric Solsten, ed. Portugal: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993.
95.^ Refugees Magazine Issue 131: (Africa) – Africa At A Glance, UNHCR
96.^ Ugandan refugees recount black deeds of 'butcher of Kampala'
97.^ UK Indians taking care of business
98.^ Uganda's loss, Britain's gain
99.^ African Union Force Ineffective, Complain Refugees in Darfur
100.^ Arabs pile into Darfur to take land 'cleansed' by janjaweed
101.^ European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE) - Asylum in the EU
102.^ Delete the Border quoting Khaleej Times; ADN Kronos Survivors of the immigrant boat tragedy accuse Greeks (in English) – [1] [2] [3]. The newspaper Hürriyet (in Turkish). Three of the drowned were Tunisians, one was Algerian, one Palestinian and the other Iraqi. The three disappeared were also Tunisians.
103.^ Chavez: Europe risks oil over immigrant law
104.^ Venezuela's Chavez Threatens to Deny Oil, Investments to EU Over Immigration Laws
105.^ The Lives of the Hungarian Refugees, UNHCR
106.^ "Day when tanks destroyed Czech dreams of Prague Spring" (Den, kdy tanky zlikvidovaly české sny Pražského jara) at Britské Listy (British Letters)
107.^ internal-displacement.org
108.^ Bosnia: Dayton Accords
109.^ Resettling Refugees: U.N. Facing New Burden
110.^ Serbia threatens to resist Kosovo independence plan
111.^ Kosovo/Serbia: Protect Minorities from Ethnic Violence (Human Rights Watch)
112.^ The World Factbook. "Serbia". Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rb.html.
113.^ Tanjug (22 October 2007). "Serbia's refugee population largest in Europe". B92. http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society-article.php?yyyy=2007&mm=10&dd=22&nav_id=44785.
114.^ Chechnya Advocacy Network. Refugees and Diaspora
115.^ Ethnic Russians in the North of Caucasus - Eurasia Daily Monitor
116.^ Bookman, Milica Zarkovic, "The Demographic Struggle for Power", (p. 131), Frank Cass and Co. Ltd. (UK), (1997) ISBN 0-7146-4732-2
117.^ Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, RUSSIA. THE INGUSH-OSSETIAN CONFLICT IN THE PRIGORODNYI REGION, May 1996.
118.^ 100,000 refugees flee Georgia conflict
119.^ "Internal Displacement. Global Overview of Trends and Developments in 2008." (PDF). IDMC. http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900sid/ASHU-7RR7QG/$file/IDMC_Apr2009.pdf?openelement. Retrieved 2009-06-28.
120.^ Number of internally displaced people remains stable at 26 million. Source: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). May 4, 2009.
121.^ RefugeeWorks Mission Statement
122.^ Kirby, Alex (2000-01-24). "West warned on climate refugees". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/613075.stm. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
123.^ Strange, Hannah (2008-06-17). "UN warns of growth in climate change refugees". The Times. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4159923.ece. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
124.^ (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/coastal/index.html)Accessed Feb. 10 2009.
125.^ Rahmstorf, Stephan. "A Semi-Empirical Approach to Projecting Sea Level Rise." Science. vol 315: Jan 19, 2007.
126.^ Rohling, E.J and Grant, K. et al., "High rates of sea-level raise during the last interglaical period". Nature GeoScience. vol 1, pg 38–42. Published Online Dec. 16, 2007.
127.^ a b (Battisti, David and Naylor, Rosamond. "Historical Warnings of Future Food Insecurity with Unprecedented Seasonal Heat". Science.vol 323, pg 240–244. Jan. 9 2009)
128.^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1999 “The Security and Civilian and Humanitarian Character of Refugee Camps and Settlements.” UNHCR EXCOM Report
129.^ Crisp, J. 1999 “A State of Insecurity: The Political Economy of Violence in Refugee-Populated Areas of Kenya.” Working Paper No. 16, “New Issues in Refugee Research.”
130.^ Weiss, T. G. 1999 “Principles, Politics, and International Affairs,” Ethics &International Affairs, 13: 1–22.
131.^ CNN.com - Detainee children 'in suicide pact' - January 28, 2002
132.^ Khamis, V. Post-traumatic stress disorder among school age Palestinian children. Child Abuse Negl. 2005 Jan;29(1):81–95.
133.^ Sundquist K, Johansson LM, DeMarinis V, Johansson SE, Sundquist J. Posttraumatic stress disorder and psychiatric co-morbidity: symptoms in a random sample of female Bosnian refugees. Eur Psychiatry. 2005 Mar;20(2):158–64.
134.^ Geltman PL, Grant-Knight W, Mehta SD, Lloyd-Travaglini C, Lustig S, Landgraf JM, Wise PH. The "lost boys of Sudan": functional and behavioral health of unaccompanied refugee minors re-settled in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005 Jun;159(6):585–91.
135.^ Fazel M, Wheeler J, Danesh J. Prevalence of serious mental disorder in 7000 refugees resettled in western countries: a systematic review. Lancet. 2005 Apr 9–15;365(9467):1309–14.
136.^ Aggrawal A. (2005) "Refugee Medicine" in : Payne-James JJ, Byard RW, Corey TS, Henderson C (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine, Elsevier Academic Press: London, Vol. 3, Pp. 514–525.
[edit] References
Mark Bixler, "The Lost Boys of Sudan: An American Story of the Refugee Experience," University of Georgia Press 2005
Refugee number statistics taken from 'Refugee', Encyclopaedia Britannica CD Edition 2004.
Peter Fell and Debra Hayes, "What are they doing here? A critical guide to asylum and immigration." Venture Press 2007.
Matthew J. Gibney, "The Ethics and Politics of Asylum: Liberal Democracy and the Response to Refugees," Cambridge University Press 2004
Michael Robert Marrus, The Unwanted: European refugees in the 20th century, Oxford University Press 1985
Dietmar Schultke, refugees in former East-Germany 1945-1990, in: "Keiner kommt durch - Die Geschichte der innerdeutschen Grenze und Berliner Mauer, Aufbau-Verlag, Berlin 2008
Tony Waters, Bureaucatizing the Good Samaritan, Westview Press, 2001.
Aristide R. Zolberg et al.,"Escape from Violence," Oxford University Press, 1989.
[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Refugees
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Refugees International
Gimme Shelter UNHCR's Gimme Shelter Campaign
Jesuit Refugee Service: serving, accompanying and advocating for the rights of refugees and internally displaced people in more than 57 countries.
[http:balgang.org/findit/topics/refugees.aspx Global Gang,]amazing real life stories about kids around the world who have been 'forced to flee' on this website for 7–14 year olds. Resources for teachers on the sister website Learn
World Refugee Survey
Pictures of Refugees in Europe – Features by Jean-Michel Clajot, Belgian photographer
Azerbaijani refugees
European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE) The European umbrella organization for European non-governmental organizations concerned with refugees and asylum seekers. Website provides weekly updates on European asylum policies, country reports, refugee stories and a comprehensive list of related links among other materials on the issue.
CBC Digital Archives—Boat People: A Refugee Crisis
UNHCR Thesaurus of official terminology related to refugees
Refugee numbers by country
PARDS.ORG Political Asylum Research and Documentation Service (Princeton, New Jersey)
Refugee Stories—Listen to People's Experiences The site of the Refugee Communities History Project is full of oral history in mp3 format. The project won the 2006 Charity Award for arts, culture and heritage in the UK.
Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford
OneWorld Guide to Refugees
UNHCR RefWorld access to UNHCR Country of Origin and Legal Information databases
Measuring Protection by Numbers, Report from official UNHCR home page
Refugee Health ~ Immigrant Health Populations and Issues & Infectious Diseases—from authors of Refugee and Immigrant Health: A Handbook for Health Professionals ISBN 0-521-82859-7
Australian Labor Party Labor for Refugees (Victorian Branch) website
British Red Cross refugee service Details of what the Red Cross and other organisations in the UK offer refuges
The Refuge Media Project is developing several video documentaries and other resources for those working with immigrant torture survivors
The Refugee Caselaw Site Electronic search able repository of case law relating to the legal definition of refugee status under the 1951 Convention
Program in Refugee and Asylum Law Leading program in the comprehensive study of international refugee law at the University of Michigan Law School
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee"
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