Eczema

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Eczema Classification and external resources
Typical, mild dermatitis
ICD-10	L20.-L30.
ICD-9	692
OMIM	603165
DiseasesDB	4113
MedlinePlus	000853
eMedicine	Derm/38  Ped/2567
MeSH	D004485

from ancient Greek ἔκζεμα ékzema[1], from ἐκζέ-ειν ekzé-ein, from ἐκ ek "out" + ζέ-ειν zé-ein "to boil" —(OED)

Eczema is a form of dermatitis,^[2] or inflammation of the epidermis.^[3] The term eczema is broadly applied to a range of persistent skin conditions. These include dryness and recurring skin rashes which are characterized by one or more of these symptoms: redness, skin edema (swelling), itching and dryness, crusting, flaking, blistering, cracking, oozing, or bleeding. Areas of temporary skin discoloration may appear and are sometimes due to healed lesions, although scarring is rare. In contrast to psoriasis, eczema is often likely to be found on the flexor aspect of joints.

Contents [hide] 1 Types 1.1 Types of common eczemas 1.2 Less common eczemas 2 Treatment 2.1 Medications 2.1.1 Corticosteroids 2.1.1.1 Side effects 2.1.1.2 Other forms 2.1.2 Immunomodulators 2.1.3 Antibiotics 2.1.4 Immunosuppressants 2.1.5 Itch relief 2.2 Avoiding dry skin 2.2.1 Moisturizing 2.2.2 Eczema and skin cleansers 2.3 Environmental measures 2.4 Light therapy 2.5 Diet and nutrition 2.6 Alternative therapies 2.7 Behavioural approach 2.8 Home treatments 3 Research 4 Vulnerability to live vaccinia virus 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Types

The term eczema refers to a set of clinical characteristics. Classification of the underlying diseases has been haphazard and unsystematic, with many synonyms used to describe the same condition. A type of eczema may be described by location (e.g. hand eczema), by specific appearance (eczema craquele or discoid), or by possible cause (varicose eczema). Further adding to the confusion, many sources use the term eczema and the term for the most common type of eczema (atopic eczema) interchangeably.

More severe eczema

The European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) published a position paper in 2001 which simplifies the nomenclature of allergy-related diseases including atopic and allergic contact eczemas.^[4] Non-allergic eczemas are not affected by this proposal.

The classification below is ordered by incidence frequency.

[edit] Types of common eczemas

• Atopic eczema (aka infantile e., flexural e., atopic dermatitis) is an allergic disease believed to have a hereditary component, and often runs in families whose members also have hay fever and asthma. Itchy rash is particularly noticeable on head and scalp, neck, inside of elbows, behind knees, and buttocks. Experts are urging doctors to be more vigilant in weeding out cases that are, in actuality, irritant contact dermatitis. It is very common in developed countries, and rising. (L20)
  
• Contact dermatitis is of two types: allergic (resulting from a delayed reaction to some allergen, such as poison ivy or nickel), and irritant (resulting from direct reaction to a detergent, such as sodium lauryl sulfate, for example). Some substances act both as allergen and irritant (wet cement, for example). Other substances cause a problem after sunlight exposure, bringing on phototoxic dermatitis. About three quarters of cases of contact eczema are of the irritant type, which is the most common occupational skin disease. Contact eczema is curable provided the offending substance can be avoided, and its traces removed from one’s environment. (L23; L24; L56.1; L56.0)
  
• Xerotic eczema (aka asteatotic e., e. craquele or craquelatum, winter itch, pruritus hiemalis) is dry skin that becomes so serious it turns into eczema. It worsens in dry winter weather, and limbs and trunk are most often affected. The itchy, tender skin resembles a dry, cracked, river bed. This disorder is very common among the older population. Ichthyosis is a related disorder. (L30.8A; L85.0)
  
• Seborrhoeic dermatitis or Seborrheic dermatitis ("cradle cap" in infants) is a condition sometimes classified as a form of eczema which is closely related to dandruff. It causes dry or greasy peeling of the scalp, eyebrows, and face, and sometimes trunk. The condition is harmless except in severe cases of cradle cap. In newborns it causes a thick, yellow crusty scalp rash called cradle cap which seems related to lack of biotin, and is often curable. (L21; L21.0)

[edit] Less common eczemas

• Dyshidrosis (aka dyshidrotic e., pompholyx, vesicular palmoplantar dermatitis, housewife’s eczema) only occurs on palms, soles, and sides of fingers and toes. Tiny opaque bumps called vesicles, thickening, and cracks are accompanied by itching which gets worse at night. A common type of hand eczema, it worsens in warm weather. (L30.1)
  
• Discoid eczema (aka nummular e., exudative e., microbial e.) is characterized by round spots of oozing or dry rash, with clear boundaries, often on lower legs. It is usually worse in winter. Cause is unknown, and the condition tends to come and go. (L30.0)
  
• Venous eczema (aka gravitational e., stasis dermatitis, varicose e.) occurs in people with impaired circulation, varicose veins and edema, and is particularly common in the ankle area of people over 50. There is redness, scaling, darkening of the skin and itching. The disorder predisposes to leg ulcers. (I83.1)
  
• Dermatitis herpetiformis (aka Duhring’s Disease) causes intensely itchy and typically symmetrical rash on arms, thighs, knees, and back. It is directly related to celiac disease and can often be put into remission with appropriate diet. (L13.0)
  
• Neurodermatitis (aka lichen simplex chronicus, localized scratch dermatitis) is an itchy area of thickened, pigmented eczema patch that results from habitual rubbing and scratching. Usually there is only one spot. Often curable through behavior modification and anti-inflammatory medication. Prurigo nodularis is a related disorder showing multiple lumps. (L28.0; L28.1)
  
• Autoeczematization (aka id reaction, autosensitization) is an eczematous reaction to an infection with parasites, fungi, bacteria or viruses. It is completely curable with the clearance of the original infection that caused it. The appearance varies depending on the cause. It always occurs some distance away from the original infection. (L30.2)
  
• There are also eczemas overlaid by viral infections (e. herpeticum, e. vaccinatum), and eczemas resulting from underlying disease (e.g. lymphoma). Eczemas originating from ingestion of medications, foods, and chemicals, have not yet been clearly systematized. Other rare eczematous disorders exist in addition to those listed here.

A patch of eczema that has been scratched

[edit] Treatment

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There is no known cure for eczema, thus treatments aim to control the symptoms: reduce inflammation and relieve itching.

[edit] Medications

[edit] Corticosteroids

Dermatitis is often treated with corticosteroids. They do not cure eczema, but are highly effective in controlling or suppressing symptoms in most cases.^[5] For mild-moderate eczema a weak steroid may be used (e.g. hydrocortisone or desonide), whilst more severe cases require a higher-potency steroid (e.g. clobetasol propionate, fluocinonide). Medium-potency corticosteroids such as clobetasone butyrate (Eumovate), Betamethasone Valerate (Betnovate) or triamcinolone are also available. Generally medical practitioners will prescribe the less potent ones first before trying the more potent ones. In many countries, weak steroids can be purchased 'over the counter' (e.g., hydrocortisone in UK, United States, Germany, Czechia, Australia, Iceland), while the more potent ones require a prescription.

[edit] Side effects

Prolonged use of topical corticosteroids is thought to increase the risk of possible side effects, the most common of which is the skin becoming thin and fragile (atrophy).^[6] Because of this, if used on the face or other delicate skin, only a low-strength steroid should be used. Additionally, high-strength steroids used over large areas, or under occlusion, may be significantly absorbed into the body, causing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis suppression (HPA axis suppression).^[7] Finally by their immunosuppressive action they can, if used without antibiotics or antifungal drugs, lead to some skin infections (fungal or bacterial). Care must be taken to avoid the eyes, as topical corticosteroids applied to the eye can cause glaucoma ^[8] or cataracts.

Because of the risks associated with this type of drug, a steroid of an appropriate strength should be sparingly applied only to control an episode of eczema. Once the desired response has been achieved, it should be discontinued and replaced with emollients as maintenance therapy. Corticosteroids are generally considered safe to use in the short- to medium-term for controlling eczema, with no significant side effects differing from treatment with non-steroidal ointment.^[9]

However, recent research has shown that topically applied corticosteroids did not significantly increase the risk of skin thinning, stretch marks or HPA axis suppression (and where such suppression did occur, it was mild and reversible where the corticosteroids were used for limited periods of time). Further, skin conditions are often under-treated because of fears of side effects. This has led some researchers to suggest that the usual dosage instructions should be changed from "Use sparingly" to "Apply enough to cover affected areas," and that specific dosage directions using "fingertip units" or FTU's be provided, along with photos to illustrate FTU's.^[10]

[edit] Other forms

In severe cases, oral cortisosteroids such as prednisolone or injections such as triamcinolone injections may also be prescribed. While these usually bring about rapid improvements, they should not be taken for any length of time and the eczema often returns to its previous level of severity once the medication is stopped. In the case of triamcinolone injections, a waiting period between treatments may be required.

[edit] Immunomodulators

Topical immunomodulators like pimecrolimus (Elidel and Douglan) and tacrolimus (Protopic) were developed after corticosteroid treatments, effectively suppressing the immune system in the affected area, and appear to yield better results in some populations. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has issued a public health advisory about the possible risk of lymph node or skin cancer from use of these products,^[11] but many professional medical organizations disagree with the FDA's findings;

• The postulation is that the immune system may help remove some pre-cancerous abnormal cells which is prevented by these drugs. However, any chronic inflammatory condition such as eczema, by the very nature of increased metabolism and cell replication, has a tiny associated risk of cancer (see Bowen's disease).
  
• Current practice by UK dermatologists is not to consider this a significant real concern and they are increasingly recommending the use of these new drugs.^[12] The dramatic improvement on the condition can significantly improve the quality of life of sufferers (and families kept awake by the distress of affected children). The major debate, in the UK, has been about the cost of such newer treatments and, given only finite NHS resources, when they are most appropriate to use.^[13]
  
• In addition to cancer risk, there are other potential side effects with this class of drugs. Adverse reactions including severe flushing, photosensitive reactivity and possible drug interaction in patients who consume even small amounts of alcohol.^[14]

[edit] Antibiotics

When the normal protective barrier of the skin is disrupted (dry and cracked), it allows easy entry for bacteria. Scratching by the patient both introduces infection and spreads it from one area to another. Any skin infection further irritates the skin and a rapid deterioration in the condition may ensue; the appropriate antibiotic should be given.

[edit] Immunosuppressants

When eczema is severe and does not respond to other forms of treatment, immunosuppressant drugs are sometimes prescribed. These dampen the immune system and can result in dramatic improvements to the patient's eczema. However, immunosuppresants can cause side effects on the body. As such, patients must undergo regular blood tests and be closely monitored by a doctor. In the UK, the most commonly used immunosuppressants for eczema are ciclosporin(Cyclosporine), azathioprine and methotrexate. These drugs were generally designed for other medical conditions but have been found to be effective against eczema. Commonly prescribed as an immunosuppressant in the United States for Eczema is the steroid Prednisone.

[edit] Itch relief

Anti-itch drugs, often antihistamine, may reduce the itch during a flare up of eczema, and the reduced scratching in turn reduces damage and irritation to the skin (the Itch cycle).^{[citation needed]}

Capsaicin applied to the skin acts as a counter irritant (see: Gate control theory of nerve signal transmission). Other agents that act on nerve transmissions, like menthol, also have been found to mitigate the body's itch signals, providing some relief. Recent research suggests Naloxone hydrochloride and dibucaine suppress the itch cycle in atopic-dermatitis model mice as well.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Avoiding dry skin

[edit] Moisturizing

Eczema can be exacerbated by dryness of the skin. Moisturizing is one of the most important self-care treatments for sufferers of eczema. Keeping the affected area moistened can promote skin healing and relief of symptoms.

Soaps and harsh detergents should not be used on affected skin because they can strip natural skin oils and lead to excessive dryness. Instead, the use of moisturizing body wash, or an emollient like aqueous cream, will maintain natural skin oils and may reduce some of the need to moisturize the skin. Another option is to try bathing using colloidal oatmeal bath treatments. In addition to avoiding soap, other products that may dry the skin such as powders or perfume should also be avoided.

Moistening agents are called 'emollients'. In general, it is best to match thicker ointments to the driest, flakiest skin. Light emollients like aqueous cream may not have any effect on severely dry skin. Some common emollients for the relief of eczema include Oilatum, Balneum, Medi Oil, Diprobase, bath oils and aqueous cream. Sebexol, Epaderm ointment, Exederm and Eucerin lotion or cream may also be helpful with itching. Lotions or creams may be applied directly to the skin after bathing to lock in moisture. Moisturizing gloves (gloves which keep emollients in contact with skin on the hands) can be worn while sleeping. Generally, twice-daily applications of emollients work best. While creams are easy to apply, they are quickly absorbed into the skin, and therefore need frequent reapplication. Ointments, with less water content, stay on the skin for longer and need fewer applications, but they can be greasy and inconvenient. Steroids may also be mixed in with ointments.

For unbroken skin, direct application of waterproof tape with or without an emollient or prescription ointment can improve moisture levels and skin integrity which allows the skin to heal. This treatment regimen can also help prevent the skin from cracking, as well as put a stop to the itch cycle. The end result is reduced lichenification (the roughening of skin from repeated scratching). Taping works best on skin away from joints.

There is a disagreement whether baths are desirable or a necessary evil. For example, the Mayo Clinic advises against daily baths to avoid skin drying.^[15]. On the other hand, the American Academy of Dermatology claims "it is a common misconception that bathing dries the skin and should be kept to a bare minimum" and recommends bathing to hydrate skin. They even suggests up to 3 short baths a day for people with for severe eczema. According to them, a moisturizer should be applied within 3 minutes to trap the moisture from bath in the skin.^[16] U.S. National Eczema Association and the Eczema Society of Canada make similar recommendations.^{[17] [18]}

Recently, ceramides, which are the major lipid constituent of the stratum corneum, have been used in the treatment of eczema. ^{[19] [20] [21]} They are often one of the ingredients of modern moisturizers. These lipids were also successfully produced synthetically in the laboratory.^[22]

[edit] Eczema and skin cleansers

One of the recommendations is that people suffering from eczema shouldn't use detergents of any kind on their skin unless absolutely necessary.^{[citation needed]} Eczema sufferers can reduce itching by using cleansers only when water is not sufficient to remove dirt from skin.

However, detergents are so ubiquitous in modern environments in items like tissues, and so persistent on surfaces, "safe" soaps are necessary to remove them from the skin in order to control eczema. Although most eczema recommendations use the terms "detergents" and "soaps" interchangeably, and tell eczema sufferers to avoid both, detergents and soaps are not the same and are not equally problematic to eczema sufferers. Detergents, often made from petrochemicals, increase the permeability of skin membranes in a way that soaps and water alone do not. Sodium lauryl sulfate, the most common household detergent, has been shown to amplify the allergenicity of other substances ("increase antigen penetration").^[23]

Unfortunately there is no one agreed-upon best kind of skin cleanser for eczema sufferers. Different clinical tests, sponsored by different personal product companies, unsurprisingly tout various brands as the most skin-friendly based on specific properties of various products and different underlying assumptions as to what really determines skin friendliness. The terms "hypoallergenic" and "doctor tested" are not regulated,^[24] and no research has been done showing that products labeled "hypoallergenic" are in fact less problematic than any others.

Dermatological recommendations in choosing a soap generally include:^{[citation needed]}

• Avoid harsh detergents or drying soaps
  
• Choose a soap that has an oil or fat base; a "superfatted" goat milk soap is best
  
• Use an unscented soap
  
• Patch test your soap choice, by using it only on a small area until you are sure of its results
  
• Use a non-soap based cleanser
  
• Use plain yogurt instead of soap

Instructions for using soap:

• Use soap sparingly
  
• Avoid using washcloths, sponges, or loofahs, or anything that will abrade the skin
  
• Use soap only on areas where it is necessary
  
• Soap up only at the very end of your bath
  
• Use a fragrance-free barrier-type moisturizer such as petroleum jelly before drying off
  
• Use care when selecting lotion, soap, or perfumes to avoid suspected allergens; ask your doctor for recommendations
  
• Never rub your skin dry, or else your skin's oil/moisture will be on the towel and not your body; pat dry instead

[edit] Environmental measures

While it has been suggested that eczema may sometimes be an allergic reaction to the excrement from house dust mites,^[25] with up to 5% of people showing antibodies to the mites,^[26] the overall role this plays awaits further corroboration.^[27]

Various measures may reduce the amount of mite antigens, in particular swapping carpets for hard surfaces.^[28] Effectiveness of vacuum cleaners is dependent upon the characteristics of the carpet pile,^[29] but in other studies daily vacuuming did not affect levels of mites.^[30] However it is not clear whether such measures actually help patients with eczema. A controlled study suggested that a number of environmental factors such as air exchange rates, relative humidity and room temperature (but not the level of house dust mites) might have an effect on the condition.^[31]

[edit] Light therapy

Light therapy using ultraviolet light can help control eczema.^[32] UVA is mostly used, but UVB and Narrow Band UVB are also used. Ultraviolet light exposure carries its own risks, particularly potential skin cancer from exposure, although there is no conclusive evidence of this.^[33]

When light therapy alone is found to be ineffective, the treatment is performed with the application (or ingestion) of a substance called psoralen. This PUVA (Psoralen + UVA) combination therapy is termed photo-chemotherapy. Psoralens make the skin more sensitive to UV light, thus allowing lower doses of UVA to be used. However, the increased sensitivity to UV light also puts the patient at greater risk for skin cancer.^[34]

[edit] Diet and nutrition

Recent studies provide hints that food allergy may trigger atopic dermatitis. For these people, identifying the allergens could lead to an avoidance diet to help minimize symptoms, although this approach is still in an experimental stage. ^[35] Dietary elements that have been reported to trigger eczema include dairy products and coffee (both caffeinated and decaffeinated), soybean products, eggs, nuts, wheat and maize (sweet corn), though food allergies may vary from person to person.^{[citation needed]} In certain individuals eczema is triggered by monosodium glutamate (MSG).^{[citation needed]} However, in 2009, researchers at National Jewish Medical and Research Center found that eczema patients were especially prone to misdiagnosis of food allergies.^[36]

Recently German scientists discovered that a diet rich in Omega-3 may be able to reduce symptoms. ^[37]

[edit] Alternative therapies

Non-conventional medical approaches include traditional Chinese medicine and Western herbalism. There is a wide variety of treatments, each of which may vary from individual to individual as to efficacy or harm. Chinese medicine is known for successfully and permanently resolving eczema. In Chinese Medicine diagnosis, eczema is often a manifestation of underlying ill health. Treatment works by improving the overall health of the individual, therefore not only resolving the eczema but improving quality of life (energy level, digestion, disease resistance, etc.).^[38] A recent study published in the British Journal of Dermatology describes improvements in quality of life and reduced need for topical corticosteroid application^[39]. Another British trial was carried out in 47 children with extensive nonexudative atopic eczema, over an eight week treatment period. Active intervention comprised ten different plants traditionally used in Chinese medicine for eczema treatment. Of the 37 children analysed, for erythema scores there was a 51% decrease (95% CI 34.5 to 72.6) with active and a 6.1% decrease (95% CI -25.2 to 30.7) for placebo. For surface damage scores there was a 63.1% decrease (95 CI 34.5 to 72.6) with active and a 6.2% decrease (95% CI -25.2 to 30.7) with placebo. Both scores suggest a benefit with herbal remedy.^[40]

It must be emphasized that Traditional Chinese Medicine is a licensed medical profession and must only be prescribed by physicians with proper education and board certification.^[41]Patients should inform their doctor/allergist/dermatologist if they are pursuing one of these treatment routes.

Alleged remedies include:

• Oatmeal is a common remedy to relieve itching, and can be applied topically as a cream or, as a colloid, in the bath. It is also part of many commercially available products intended for eczema treatment and for other skin conditions. But some recent studies say that oat can provoke a flare-up on some patients.^{[citation needed]}
  
• Sea water: According to the British Association of Dermatologists, there is considerable anecdotal evidence that salt water baths may help some children with atopic eczema.^{[42][dead link]} One reason might be that seawater has antiseptic properties. The Dead sea is popular for alleviating skin problems including eczema.
  
• Sulfur has been used for many years as a topical treatment in the alleviation of eczema, although this could be suppressive. It was fashionable in the Victorian and Edwardian eras. Recently sulfur has regained some popularity as a homeopathic alternative to steroids and coal tar. However, there is currently no scientific evidence for the claim that sulfur treatment relieves eczema.^[43]
  
• Probiotics are live microorganisms taken by mouth, such as the Lactobacillus bacteria found in yogurt. They are not effective for treating eczema, and have a small risk of adverse events such as infection.^[44]
  
• Other remedies lacking scientific evidence include chiropractic spinal manipulation^[45] and Shea butter.^{[citation needed]}

Patients can also wear clothing designed specifically to manage the itching, scratching and peeling associated with eczema.^[46]

[edit] Behavioural approach

In the 1980s, Swedish dermatologist Peter Noren developed a behavioural approach to the treatment of long term atopic eczema. This approach has been further developed by dermatologist Richard Staughton and psychiatrist Christopher Bridgett at the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital in London.^[47][48] Patients undergo a 6 week monitored program involving scratch habit reversal and self awareness of scratching levels. For long term eczema sufferers, scratching can become habitual. Sometimes scratching becomes a reflex, resulting in scratching without conscious awareness, rather than from the feeling of itchiness itself. The habit reversal program is done in conjunction with the standard applied emollient/corticosteroid treatments so that the skin can heal. It also reduces future scratching, as well as reduces the likelihood of further flareups. The behavioural approach can give an eczema sufferer some control over the degree of severity of eczema.

[edit] Home treatments

Dyshidrosis can be treated locally by breaking early on the tiny vesicles with a small needle and disinfecting the scratch. It will reverse the eczemic inflammation and begin a scarring process, which stops the vesicle formation and the drying of the skin around the broken vesicle, and temporarily prevents the formation of new vesicles to the same area of the skin. When kept clean properly, the broken vesicles will first turn into scars, after which using dexpanthenol (vitamin B12) ointment heals the cracked and dry area of old vesicles.

[edit] Research

Other than direct treatments of the symptoms, no cure is presently known for most types of dermatitis; even cortisone treatments and immunomodulation may often have only minor effects on what may be a complex problem. As the condition is often related to family history of allergies (and thus heredity), it is probable that gene therapy or genetic engineering might help.

Damage from the enzymatic activity of allergens is usually prevented by the body's own protease inhibitors, such as, LEKTI, produced from the gene SPINK5. Mutations in this gene are known to cause Netherton’s syndrome, which is a congenital erythroderma. These patients nearly always develop atopic disease, including hay fever, food allergy, urticaria and asthma. Such evidence supports the hypothesis that skin damage from allergens may be the cause of eczema, and may provide a venue for further treatment. ^[49]

Another study identified a gene that the researchers believe to be the cause of inherited eczema and some related disorders. The gene produces the protein filaggrin, the lack of which causes dry skin and impaired skin barrier function.^[50]

A recent study indicated that two specific chemicals found in the blood are connected to the itching sensations associated with eczema. The chemicals are Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and Substance P.^[51]

Eczema has increased dramatically in England as a study showed a 42% rise in diagnosis of the condition between 2001 and 2005, by which time it was estimated to affect 5.7 million adults and children. A paper in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine says Eczema is thought to be a trigger for other allergic conditions. GP records show over 9 million patients were used by researchers to assess how many people have the skin disorder.^[52]

[edit] Vulnerability to live vaccinia virus

In June, 2007, Science magazine reported that an American soldier who had been vaccinated for smallpox, a vaccine that contains live vaccinia virus, had transmitted vaccinia virus to his two-year-old son.^[53] The soldier and his son both had a history of eczema. The son rapidly came down with a rare side effect, eczema vaccinatum, which had been seen during the 1960s when children were routinely vaccinated against smallpox. The child developed a severe full-body pustular rash, his abdomen filled with fluid, and his kidneys nearly failed. Intense consultation with experts from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and a donation of an experimental antiviral drug by SIGA Technologies saved the child's life. Those with a family history of eczema are advised not to accept the smallpox vaccination, or anything else that contains live vaccinia virus.

[edit] References

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2. ^ MeSH Eczema
   
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8. ^ "neomycin and polymyxin b sulfates and bacitracin zinc with hydrocortisone acetate (Neomycin sulfate and Polymyxin B Sulfate, Bacitracin zinc and Hydrocortisone Acetate) ointment -- Warnings". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?id=1932#nlm34071-1. 
   
9. ^ Van Der Meer JB, Glazenburg EJ, Mulder PG, Eggink HF, Coenraads PJ (1999). "The management of moderate to severe atopic dermatitis in adults with topical fluticasone propionate. The Netherlands Adult Atopic DermatitisStudy Group". Br. J. Dermatol. 140 (6): 1114–21. PMID 10354080. 
   
10. ^ Bewley,A. (2008). "Expert Consensus: Time for a Change in the Way We Advise Our Patients to Use Topical Corticosteroids" (^{[dead link]} – ^{Scholar search}). British Journal of Dermatology 158 (5): 917–920. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08479.x. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08479.x.  Also at Medscape
    
11. ^ "FDA Issues Public Health Advisory Informing Health Care Providers of Safety Concerns Associated with the Use of Two Eczema Drugs, Elidel and Protopic". FDA. March 10, 2005. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2005/ANS01343.html. Retrieved on 2007-10-16. 
    
12. ^ N H Cox and Catherine H Smith (December 2002). "Advice to dermatologists re topical tacrolimus" (DOC). Therapy Guidelines Committee. British Association of Dermatologists. http://www.bad.org.uk/healthcare/guidelines/Advice_re_topical_tacrolimus.doc. 
    
13. ^ "Pimecrolimus cream for atopic dermatitis". Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin 41: 33–6. May 2003. doi:10.1136/dtb.2003.41533 (inactive 2008-06-25). PMID 12789846. http://dtb.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/41/5/33. Retrieved on 2007-10-16. 
    
14. ^ Martins GA, Arruda L (June 2004). "Systemic treatment of psoriasis - Part I: methotrexate and acitretin translation" (^{[dead link]} – ^{Scholar search}). An. Bras. Dermatol 79 (3): 263–278. doi:10.1590/S0365-05962004000300002. http://www.anaisdedermatologia.org.br/artigo_en.php?artigo_id=159. 
    
15. ^ "Atopic dermatitis (eczema) - Prevention at Mayoclinic's website". http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/eczema/DS00986/DSECTION=8. Retrieved on 2008-05-07. 
    
16. ^ "Daily Skin Care Essential to Control Atopic Dermatitis article at American Academy of Dermatology's EczemaNet website". http://www.skincarephysicians.com/eczemanet/daily_care.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-24. 
    
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[edit] External links

Look up eczema in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• MedlinePlus: Dermatitis
  
• Mayo Clinic: Dermatitis and Eczema - Overview, Treatment, Causes, Prevention, Self-Care
  
• National Eczema Society (UK)
  
• National Eczema Association (US)

[hide] v • d • e Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (integumentary system) (L, 680-709) Infections Bacterial skin disease Staphylococcus (Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, Impetigo, Boil, Carbuncle) · Strep (Impetigo) · Corynebacterium (Erythrasma) Viral skin disease Wart · Molluscum contagiosum · Erythema infectiosum · Exanthema subitum · Herpes simplex (Herpetic whitlow) General Cellulitis (Paronychia) · Acute lymphadenitis · Pilonidal cyst · Pimple (Pustule) Bullous disorders acantholysis (Pemphigus, Transient acantholytic dermatosis) · Pemphigoid (Bullous, Cicatricial, Gestational) · Dermatitis herpetiformis Inflammatory Dermatitis and eczema Atopic dermatitis · Seborrhoeic dermatitis (Dandruff, Cradle cap) · Contact dermatitis (Diaper rash, Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis) · Erythroderma · Lichen simplex chronicus/Prurigo nodularis · Itch (Pruritus ani, Pruritus scroti, Pruritus vulvae) · Nummular dermatitis · Dyshidrosis · Pityriasis alba Papulosquamous disorders Psoriasis (Psoriatic arthritis) · Parapsoriasis (Pityriasis lichenoides et varioliformis acuta, Pityriasis lichenoides chronica, Lymphomatoid papulosis) · other pityriasis (Pityriasis rosea, Pityriasis rubra pilaris) · other lichenoid (Lichen planus, Lichen nitidus) Urticaria Dermatographic urticaria · Cold urticaria · Cholinergic urticaria · Solar urticaria Erythema Erythema multiforme/drug eruptions: Stevens-Johnson syndrome · Toxic epidermal necrolysis · Erythema nodosum Other erythema: Erythema annulare centrifugum · Erythema marginatum · Necrolytic migratory erythema · Erythema toxicum Radiation-related disorders Sunburn · actinic rays (Actinic keratosis, Actinic cheilitis) · Polymorphous light eruption (Acne aestivalis) · Radiodermatitis · Erythema ab igne Pigmentation/ Dyschromia hypopigmentation (Albinism, Vitiligo) · hyperpigmentation (Melasma, Freckle, Café au lait spot, Lentigo/Liver spot, Acanthosis nigricans, Acral acanthotic anomaly) Other skin keratosis/hyperkeratosis (Seborrheic keratosis, Callus) · other epidermal thickening (Ichthyosis acquisita, Palmoplantar keratoderma) skin ulcer (Pyoderma gangrenosum, Bedsore) Cutaneous Markers of Internal Malignancy (Florid cutaneous papillomatosis, acanthosis nigricans, sign of Leser-Trelat) atrophic (Lichen sclerosus, Acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans) necrobiosis (Granuloma annulare, Necrobiosis lipoidica) · other granuloma (Granuloma faciale, Pyogenic granuloma) cutaneous vasculitis (Livedoid vasculitis, Erythema elevatum diutinum) Connective tissues collagen disease: Keloid localized connective tissue disorders: Lupus erythematosus (Discoid lupus erythematosus, Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus) · Scleroderma/Morphea · Linear scleroderma · Calcinosis cutis · Sclerodactyly · Ainhum see also congenital, neoplasia

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Categories: Autoimmune diseases | Eczema | Greek loanwords

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