bangaindigenous: EMPOWERING THE SCHEDULED TRIBES

TFYP STEERING COMMITTEE Sl. No. 5/2001

REPORT OF THE

STEERING COMMITTEE ON

EMPOWERING THE SCHEDULED TRIBES

FOR

THE TENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN

(2002-2007)

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

PLANNING COMMISSION

NEW DELHI

OCTOBER - 2001

REPORT OF THE STEERING COMMITTEE ON

EMPOWERING THE SCHEDULED TRIBES

IN THE TENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (2002-2007)

I BACKGROUND 1

II AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TARGET GROUP – ‘THE

SCHEDULED TRIBES’ AND ‘TRIBAL AFFAIRS’ 5

III DEVELOPMENT OF STs THROUGH VARIOUS

FIVE YEAR PLANS (1951-97) 8

IV IMPACT OF PLANS, POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES 20

V TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT : SOME SECTORAL PROBLEMS 26

VI THE UNRESOLVED ISSUES OF TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT 41

VII EMPOWERING THE SCHEDULED TRIBES : AN

APPROACH IN HE TENTH PLAN (2002-07) 54

VIII RECOMMENDATIONS 64

IX FINANCIAL REQUIREMENTS 82

- ANNEXURES

REPORT OF THE STEERING COMMITTEE ON `EMPOWERING THE SCHEDULED

TRIBES' IN THE TENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (2002-07)

CHAPTER - I

B A C K G R O U N D

In the context of the preparations for the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07), a Steering

Committee on ‘Empowering the Scheduled Tribes’ was set up under the Chairpersonship

of Dr. D.N. Tiwari, Member, Planning Commission. While the Terms of Reference of the

Committee are given below, its composition is available at Annexure-I :

i) to review the existing approach, strategies and priorities; the on-going policies

and programmes for empowering Scheduled Tribes (STs) during the Ninth Five

Year Plan; and suggest if and wherever necessary, alternative strategies,

priorities, policies and programmes to accelerate the empowering process;

ii) to assess the effectiveness of the implementation of `Tribal Sub-Plan’ strategy

for STs and suggest specific measures and mechanisms to ensure that the

`population – proportion’ funds flow from the other development sectors both at

the Central and State levels and the Special Central Assistance (SCA) to TSP

is utilized effectively ;

iii) to assess the impact of the on-going economic reforms and progressive

globalization / liberalization of economy on the socio-economic conditions of the

Tribals, especially their economy and suggest effective strategies to cope up

with the situation;

iv) to review the effectiveness of the existing legislations relating to STs and their

enforcement and suggest corrective measures; and

v) to review the effectiveness of the existing Institutional Arrangements for

implementation of policies and programmes relating to welfare, protection and

development of STs and suggest improvements, if necessary;

vi) to assess the role of NGOs and the status of devolution of powers and

resources to Panchayati Raj Institutions / Local Traditional Tribal Councils and

Local Self Government Bodies as per the 73rd and 74th Constitutional

Amendments of 1993 and 1996 and suggest specific measures for their

effective involvement in the planning process ; and

vii) to suggest an approach and necessary strategies, priorities, policies, and

programmes under JFM, Forest Villages, shifting cultivation etc. along with

physical and financial targets in pursuing the commitment of Empowering the

Scheduled Tribes during the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07).

Simultaneously, Planning Commission has also set up a Working Group on the

same Subject at the Ministerial level to undertake a detailed review of the progress of

the implementation of all the on-going policies and programmes, not only within the

Tribal Development Sector but also in the other related sectors; identify gaps; examine the

effectiveness of the strategies, mechanisms and institutions; and to give necessary

recommendations including the financial requirements to carry on the commitment of

empowering the Scheduled Tribes during the Tenth Plan (2002-07). The Terms of

Reference and the Composition of the Group are given at Annexure-II.

Further, the Steering Committee, while reviewing various governmental efforts that

have gone into during the last nine Five Year Plans, felt very strongly the need for having a

detailed review on various aspects of tribal development including strategies, plans, policies,

programmes and legislations adopted not only within the tribal-development sector, but also

in all the tribal-related sectors; with a special objective to examine as to how far they are in

line with the commitments made in the constitution; what is their impact; why have they

failed to solve the many un-resolved issues which are affecting the well-being of the tribals

and lastly what strategies need to be adopted during the Tenth Plan which is on its anvil.

Accordingly, the Steering Committee set up 6 Sub-Groups, as per the details given

below. A copy of the Office Order giving detailed Composition and Terms of Reference

is at Annexure-III.

S.No

Sub-Group

Policies and Legislations

relat-ing

to Protection, and

Development of

STs

Implementation of

the strategies of

TSP and SCA to

TSP and other

developmental

measures for STs

Development of

Forest Villages

and the Tribals

living therein and

the problems

related to shifting

cultivation.

Economic Development

of STs

through the mechanisms

available

within STspecific

and STrelated

Finance

and Development

Corporations (including

Forest

Corporations)

Tribal Health with

Chairperson

Dr. Bhupender Singh,

New Delhi

Dr. B.D. Sharma,

New Delhi

Shri. R.P.S. Katwal

DG, ICFRE, Dehradun

Shri S.K. Naik

Secretary, M/Tribal

Affairs, Govt. of India,

New Delhi.

Smt. Shailaja

Chandra

Terms of Reference

To review the existing policies and

legislative measures; identify the

gaps and to suggest necessary

measures for Empowering Tribals.

To have a critical review of the

implementation of the strategies of

TSP and SCA to TSP and suggest

measures for its effective

implementation

To review the existing conditions of the

Forest Villages and the conditions of

the Tribals living therein and suggest

a definite Programme of Action for

improving their improvement

To review the functioning of various

ST-specific and ST-related Finance

and Development Corpora -tions

such as NSFDC, STDCs/

TDCCs,TRIFED, NCDC, MFPF,

FDCs, MARKFED etc.

To make an assessment of the

magnitude of the health problems of

Tribals/Tribal areas and suggest

measures for promotion, processing

and marketing of indigenous

medicines/ medicinal plants and also

a special focus on

the utilization of

indigenous medicines/

medicinal

plants in the tribal

areas.

Role of NGOs in

Tribal Development

Secretary,

Department

of ISM&H, Govt. of

India

Shri B.L. Gaur

President, Bharatiya

Adimjati Sewak

Sangh, New Delhi.

to develop a special category of

health workers for the tribal areas.

To review the role/functioning of NGOs

in tribal development and suggest

steps/measures towards their

effective involvement.

Keeping the Terms of Reference, in view the individual Sub-Groups, have transacted

their business by touching all the related aspects of their individual subjects and came up

with effective recommendations for Empowering the tribals during the Tenth Five Year Plan.

While a brief summary of the Issues dealt with by the respective Sub-Groups are

annexed at Annexure-IV, their suggestions find a place as part of the total

recommendations of the Steering Committee.

As per the schedule, the Group as well as the Sub-Groups have submitted their Reports in

the month of May 2001. The same were discussed by Steering Committee in their Third

Meeting held on 25.5.2001. Based on the detailed deliberations that took place in all the 3

Meetings of the steering Committee and also taking into consideration the suggestions and

recommendations of the Working Groups and of the 6 Sub-Groups, the Steering Committee

finalized its Report.

CHAPTER - II

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TARGET GROUP - `THE SCHEDULED TRIBES' AND

`TRIBAL AFFAIRS '

According to the 1991 Census, the Scheduled Tribes (STs) account for 67.76 million,

representing 8.08 per cent of the country's total population*. Of these, 1.32 million (1.95%)

belong to Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs). While STs, suffer as a Group and lag behind the

rest of the society due to their social and economic backwardness, the conditions of PTGs

are worse than the rest of the tribals.

Demographic Profile*

STs inhabit in all the States except Haryana, Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry.

While the highest concentration of the ST population is found in the North-Eastern States of

Mizoram (94.75%); Nagaland (87.70%); Meghalaya (85.53%); and Arunachal Pradesh

(63.66%) and in the UTs of Lakshadweep (93.15%); and Dadra and Nagar Haveli (78.99%),

there are high concentrations in the States of Madhya Pradesh (23.27%); Orissa (22.21%);

Gujarat (14.92%); Assam (12.82%); Rajasthan (12.44%); Maharashtra (9.27%); Bihar

(7.66%); and Andhra Pradesh (6.31%) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (5.54%). A

statement showing the state-wise distribution of STs and PTGs, is annexed at

Annexure-V.

Constitutional Safeguards

Recognizing the special needs of various weaker sections including STs, the

Constitution of India not only guarantees equality before the Law for all (Article 14), but also

enjoins upon the State to make special provisions of affirmative discrimination for

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

* Population of STs as per the Census 2001 is not yet available. However, the

population of 67.76 million in 1991 has been estimated to have reached 83.19

million by 2001.

the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes, (Article 15(4)). It also

empowers the State to make provisions for reservation in appointments or posts in favour of

any backward class citizens which in the opinion of the State is not adequately represented

in the services under the State (Article 16(4)). Further, it enjoins upon the State to promote

with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the

people and, in particular, …..the STs and promises to protect them from social injustice and

all forms of exploitation (Article 46). For promoting the welfare of STs and for raising the

level of administration of the Scheduled Areas to that of the rest of the State (Article 244),

and special financial assistance is ensured under the Constitution (Article 275 (1).

Reservation of seats for the STs in the House of the people and in the State Legislative

Assemblies; educational institutions; and in services is another measure of positive

discrimination in favour of these Groups (Articles 330, 332, 335). It also empowers the State

to appoint a Commission to investigate the conditions of the socially and educationally

backward classes (Article 340) and to specify those Tribes or Tribal Communities be

deemed to be as STs (Article 342).

Further, the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution refers to the administration and control of the

Scheduled Areas and the Scheduled Tribes in any State, other than the States of Assam,

Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram by ensuring submission of Annual Reports by the

Governors to the President of India regarding the Administration of the Scheduled Areas and

setting up of Tribal Advisory Council to advise on such matter pertaining to the welfare and

advancement of the Scheduled Tribes (Article 244(1)).

The Sixth Schedule to the Constitution refers to the administration of Tribal Areas in the

States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram by designating certain tribal areas as

Autonomous Districts and Autonomous Regions and also by constituting District Councils

and Regional Councils (Article 244(2)). It enables Autonomous District Councils and

Regional Councils to be constituted in those areas with a fair amount of legislative and

executive powers.

To ensure effective participation of the tribals in the process of planning and decision-

making, the 73rd Amendment of the Constitution have been extended to the Scheduled

Areas through the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996.

Tribal Affairs : An Independent Sector

Despite the fact that the needs of the Tribals being very different from the rest of their

breathren, yet the development of Scheduled Tribes was made part of the Backward

Classes Sector which handled the welfare and development of SCs, STs, OBCs and

Minorities till very recently. It was only in October 1999, an exclusive Ministry of Tribal Affairs

was set up under the charge of a full fledged Cabinet rank Minister to attend to the following

mandate:

i) Tribal Welfare-Planning, Policy formulation, Research and Training.

ii) Tribal development including scholarships to STs

iii) Promotion of voluntary efforts in development of STs

iv) Administrative Ministry with respect to matters concerning;

• Scheduled Areas;

• Autonomous districts of Assam excluding roads and bridge works and ferries

thereon;

• Regulations framed by Governors of State for Scheduled areas for Tribal

areas specified in part A of Table appended to paragraph 20 of the Sixth

Schedule to the Constitution;

• National Commission for Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes in so far as

they relate to STs; and

• Issue of directions with regard to drawing up and execution of Schemes

essential for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes.

Thus, the newly set up Ministry of Tribal Affairs has become the Nodal Ministry and

was made responsible for empowering STs and thus raise their over-all status on par with

the rest of the society. The Ministry in its nodal capacity is expected to i) formulate policies

and programmes; ii) enacts/amends legislations affecting STs and iii) co-ordinates the efforts

of both governmental and non-governmental organizations working to improve the lot of STs

in the country.

CHAPTER - III

DEVELOPMENT OF STs THROUGH VARIOUS FIVE YEAR PLANS (1951-97)

The Constitutional commitments prompted the Policy-Makers and the Planners to accord

high priority to the welfare and development of STs right from the beginning of the country's

developmental planning, launched in 1951. The First Five Year Plan (1951-56) clearly laid

down the principle that `the general development programmes should be so designed to

cater adequately to the Backward Classes and special provisions should be used for

securing additional and more intensified development'.

The Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) envisaged that the benefits of economic

development should accrue more and more to the relatively less privileged classes of society

in order to reduce inequalities. As for the STs, `Welfare Programes have to be based on

respect and understanding of their culture and traditions and an appreciation of the

social, psychological and economic problems with which they are faced'. This was in

tune with "PANCHSHEEL" - the Five Principles of Tribal Development - enunciated by the

first Prime Minister, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru. An important landmark during the Second

Plan was the creation of 43 Special Multi-purpose Tribal Blocks (SMPTBs) later called

Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs). Each was planned for about 25,000 people as against

65,000 in a normal Block. An amount of Rs.15 lakh per SMPTB was contributed by the

Central Government. The Committee on SMPTBs set up under the Chairmanship of Verrier

Elwin (1959) studied the working of these Blocks and found that they were providing very

useful services.

The Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) advocated the principle to establish greater `equality

of opportunity' and to bring about reduction in disparities in income and wealth and a

more even distribution of economic power. While appraising the programmes of the

Third Plan the Shilu Ao Study Team remarked that `if progress is to be judged by what

remains to be done to bring the tribals on par with the rest of the populations, the

leeway is still considerable'.

The Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) proclaimed that the `basic goal was to realize rapid

increase in the standard of living of the people through measures which also promote

equality and social justice'. An important step was setting up of six pilot projects in

Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa in 1971-72 as Central Sector

Scheme with the primary objective of combating political unrest and Left Wing

extremism. A separate Tribal Development Agency was established for each project.

The Fourth Plan outlay for each was Rs.1.50 crore for the core programmes of economic

development and Rs. 0.50 crore for arterial roads. These agencies were later merged with

Integrated Tribal Development Projects during the Fifth Plan.

The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) marked a shift in the approach as reflected in the

launching of Tribal Sub- Plan (TSP) for the direct benefit of the development of

Tribals. The TSP stipulated that funds of the State and Centre should be quantified on the

population proportion basis, with budgetary mechanisms to ensure accountability, nondivertability

and utilisation for the welfare and development of STs. With this thrust the

concept of Tribal Sub-Plan came into action during the Fifth Plan. There has been a

substantial increase in the flow of funds for the development of STs under this arrangement,

resulting in the expansion of infrastructure facilities and enlargement of coverage of the

target groups in the beneficiary oriented programmes.

The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) was sought to ensure a higher degree of

devolution of funds so that at least 50 per cent of tribal families were provided

assistance to cross the poverty line. Emphasis was on family-oriented economic activities

rather than infrastructure development schemes. A "Modified Area Development Approach"

(MADA) was devised for pockets of tribal concentration with population of 10,000, at least

half of them being STs, and 245 MADA pockets were delineated. Also, 20 more tribal

communities were identified as "primitive", raising the total to 72.

In the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90), there was substantial increase in the flow of

funds for the development of STs, resulting in the expansion of infrastructural facilities and

enlargement of coverage. Emphasis was laid on the educational development of STs. For

the economic development of SCs and STs, two national level institutions were set up

viz., (i) Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation (TRIFED) in 1987 as an

apex body for State Tribal Development Cooperative Corporations; and (ii) National

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation

(NSFDC) in 1989. The former was envisaged to provide remunerative price for the Forest

and Agriculture Produce of tribals while the latter was intended to provide credit support for

employment generation.

In the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97), efforts were intensified to bridge the gap

between the levels of development of the STs and those of other sections of the

society so that by the turn of the century, these disadvantaged sections of the

population could be brought on par with the rest of the society. The Plan not only

emphasised elimination of exploitation but also paid attention to the special problems of

suppression of rights, land alienation, non-payment of minimum wages and restrictions on

right to collect minor forest produce etc. Attention, on priority basis, continued to be paid for

the socio-economic upliftment of STs. A review of tribal development in early Nineties

revealed that `Though the TSP Strategy has yielded results, yet were not in a position

to commensurate with the efforts put in and investments made'. However, the allocation

for development of STs was increased during this plan period also.

The Ninth Five Year Plan decided to empower the Socially Disadvantaged Groups

including STs as agents of socio-economic change and development as under:-

i) Social Empowerment

Education being the most effective instrument for the socio-economic empowerment, high

priority continued to be accorded to improve the educational status of STs, especially that of

the women and the girl child. No doubt, there has been a visible increase in the literacy rates

of STs during the last three developmental decades, but the gap between literacy rate of

STs and that of the general population continues to persist, as shown in the table :

Literacy Rates of STs; The Gap between ST & General Population

( 1971 ) ( 1991 )

Indicator Total ST GAP

(Col.2-3)

Total ST GAP

(Col.5-6)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Total

Literacy

29.5 11.3 18.2 52.2 29.6 22.6

Male 39.5 17.6 21.9 64.1 40.7 23.4

Female 18.7 4.9 13.8 39.3 18.2 21.1

Gross Enrolment Ratios

Classes I -

(1990-91) (1999-2000)

( 1971 ) ( 1991 )

Indicator Total ST GAP

(Col.2-3)

Total ST GAP

(Col.5-6)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Total 100.1 85.9 (-)14.2 94.9 97.7 (+)2.8

Boys 114.0 101.3 (-)12.7 104.1 112.7 (+)8.6

Girls 85.5 68.2 (-)17.3 85.2 82.7 (-)2.5

Classes VIVIII

(1990-91) (1993-94)

Total 62.1 32.2 (-)29.9 58.8 58.0 (-) 0.8

Boys 76.6 42.3 (-)34.3 67.2 70.8 (+) 3.6

Girls 47.0 21.9 (-)25.1 49.7 44.8 (-) 4.9

Drop-out Rates ( Class IVIII)

(1990-91) (1993-94)

Total 60.9 78.6 (+)17.7 60.5 77.7 (+) 17.2

Boys 59.1 75.7 (+)16.6 58.3 75.4 (+) 17.3

Girls 65.1 82.2 (+)17.1 63.5 80.9 (+) 17.4

Source : 1) Selected Educational Statistics, 1990-91 and 1998-99, Department of Education

Government of India, New Delhi

2) Education in India 1992-93, Department of Education, Govt. of India, 1998.

3) Annual Report 2000-01, Dept. of Education, Govt. of India.

4) 2001 Census figures in respect of STs are not available.

As could be seen from the Table above, the most discouraging sign was the

increasing gap between the literacy rates of STs and of the general categories

between 1971 and 1991, especially that of ST females, defeating the very effort of

reducing the existing gaps/disparities. The female literacy rates of STs still continues to

be very low requiring focused attention.

To supplement the efforts of the Department of Education, the nodal Ministry of

Social Justice and empowerment and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, also implemented a few

exclusive programmes for the educational betterment of STs. They include PMS, Hostels for

ST Boys & Girls; Ashram Schools, Residential Schools, Book Banks, Merit Scholarships,

Coaching Centres etc.

The nation-wide scheme of Post-Matric Scholarships (PMS) for Scheduled Tribe

students was revised in 1997-98 to extend its scope besides increasing the amount of

scholarship and the ceiling of income limits of parents. The present coverage under this

scheme is as high as 20 lakhs ST students. Recently, it came to the notice that as the State

Governments are unable to meet the huge committed liability, therefore, the scheme of Post-

Matric Scholarships is getting adversely affected by leaving the students to face hardships

due to non-payment of scholarships under these schemes.

Tribal hostels and Residential Schools in remote interiors are poorly managed,

plagued by badly maintained buildings with leakages and by delays in payments to students

and purchases. The greatest failing has been in education in tribal schools. The stated tribal

policy of ‘integration’ and `enabling tribal communities to develop according to their own

genius’ would appear to have been entirely forgotten if mainstream school curricula are

imposed wholesale on tribal schools. The problem is not merely the medium of instruction --

again contrary to stated national policy of enabling children at the primary level to study in

their mother-tongue -- there are almost no tribal schools in which teaching is in tribal

languages.

Although educational facilities were made available to the weaker sections, the

quality of those facilities remained dismal and the content of education was neither found

relevant nor meaningful to their socio-economic set-up and needs.

ii) Economic Empowerment

Economic backwardness amongst STs when compared to the general population is

depressingly obvious as more than half of the ST population (51.14%) lived below poverty

line (in 1993-94) as against the percentage of 35.97 amongst the general population.

The National SC & ST Finance Development Corporation - an apex level

Organization for both SCs & STs was bifurcated in 2001 allowing the birth of an exclusive

working Corporation at national level for ST with an Authorised share capital of Rs.500

crores. Thus, Corporation in collaboration with the State ST Corporations is expected to

work as the catalytic agent besides extending both `forward' and `backward' linkages of

credit and marketing facilities to the micro-level agencies to improve the economic lot of STs.

In addition to the programmes of the Corporation, the nodal Ministry also extended

Special Central Assistance as an additive to State TSP (Tribal Sub Plan) to promote familybased

income generation activities to improve the economic conditions of STs.

Unfortunately, these programmes also suffered from all those handicaps being faced by

several poverty alleviation programmes.

Also the line Ministries of Rural Areas and Employment and Urban Affairs and Employment

implement a few nation-wide poverty alleviation programmes viz - Swarna Jayanti Swa-

Rozgar Yojana and Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana to generate both wage and selfemployment

and income generation opportunities for the benefit of the socially and

economically disadvantaged Groups. The impact of various poverty alleviation programmes

put into action during the last two developmental decades has brought down the incidence of

poverty from 63.14 in 1983-84 to 51.14 in 1993-94 in respect of STs as against 44.48 to

35.97 in respect of general category for the same period. The declining trend in the poverty

rate amongst STs has been quite encouraging as the percentage decline of STs stood at

12.00, while it was 8.51 for the general category. However, the incidence of poverty amongst

STs still continues to be very high as almost half of their population live below poverty line.

iii) Social Justice

As a first step in the process of instituting Social Justice, major structural changes were

brought into the erstwhile Ministry of Welfare by setting up of two exclusive national

machineries viz., the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment for SCs, OBCs and

Minorities in 1998 and the Ministry of Tribal Affairs for STs in 1999. This was done not only

to extend a focused attention to these groups but also to re-affirm the governmental

commitment of ensuring social justice to the socially deprived.

Not only the disadvantaged groups lived in social and economic backwardness but they

were also subjected to the persistent social discrimination, crimes and atrocities and

exploitation. Areas that are endemic and have a dubious distinction of such crime/atrocities

lie in States of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

Therefore, there is an urgent need for effective enforcement of special legislations of PCR

Act and POA Act and provisions of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) with more stringent

measures. Also, a definite plan of action ensuring both investigative, preventive and

rehabilitative measures needs to be taken up in those areas/districts where the incidence of

crimes/atrocities/violence is high against the weaker sections. Despite the setting up of

Special Courts and Mobile Courts to expedite the pending backlog of cases, there still exist

number of cases in the courts of law. States/UTs should review the existing arrangements to

administer the protective legislations and strengthen/revamp them effectively to check the

trend of crimes and atrocities and ensure speedy disposal of the pending cases. In this

endeavour, NGOs should also be involved .

As a result of the policy of positive discrimination through reservations, STs in

services have gained strength from 2.8 percent in 1974 to 5.5 percent in 1994 which is still

below their population percentage of 8.1. Representation of STs in Group A and B Services,

i.e., at the decision making level, has been far below the expected level. This implies that

STs lack opportunities for acquiring quality education on par with the general population.

Therefore, there is an urgent need to review the education programmes for STs to

secure/ensure qualitative output with competence to suit the needs of higher jobs and

services.

Yet another important area is the development of 75 Primitive Tribal Groups spread

over 15 States/UTs, which demands both special and immediate attention of the

Government. Besides living under the conditions which are unfit for human living, they are

also said to face a major threat of extinction because of nutritional deficiencies and diseases

and lack of basic health care. Although a programme for their survival, protection and

development was launched in 1998 with a total Ninth Plan outlay of Rs.22 crore, not much

progress appears to have been achieved. It is required to put through a carefully thought-out

`Plan of Action for Survival, Protection and Development' of Primitive Tribal Groups. Forest

villagers have remained outside the purview of planned development. Special schemes

should be formulated to alleviate their poverty. A statement showing the physical and

financial targets and the achievements made during the Ninth Plan is at Annexure-VI.

Implementation of TSP, SCA to TSP & GIA under Article 275(1) of the Constitution

The two special strategies of Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) for STs and the Special Central

Assistance (SCA) to TSP have been receiving special attention right from their initiation

during the early Seventies, as these are the most effective mechanisms to ensure additional

flow of funds/benefits for STs from the other general development sectors in proportion to

their population.

As per the information available, earmarking of funds under TSP is being followed by

25 Ministries/Departments at the Centre and at State level, only 23 States/UTs are adhering

to this.

The SCA to TSP is an additive to TSP to strengthen the efforts of States in filling up critical

gaps under the family-based income generation projects. Such assistance to TSP was also

enhanced from Rs.1,479.84 crore in the Eighth Plan to Rs.2010 crore in the Ninth Plan,

showing an increase by 35.8 per cent. While the details of such flow of funds both at

Central and State levels during the Ninth Plan are given in the following Table,

Ministry-wise and State-wise details are appended at Annexures-VII, VIII.

Flow of Funds through LTSP and SCA to TSP during Ninth Plan (1997-2002)

Item Outlay Flow to TSP

Percentage

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) for STs

- Flow from Central Plan 110454.10 6462.00 5.85

(in respect of 25

Ministries/Departments)

- Flow from State Plan 296911.20 22314.22 7.52

(in respect of 20

States/UTs)

Special Central Assistance (SCA) to TSP

- SCA to TSP (Outlay & Release) 2010.00 2009.61 99.98

Source : Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi.

With regard to TSP, certain issues like non-earmarking of funds and its consequences have

come to surface. Firstly, some Ministries/Departments which are regulatory in nature cannot

earmark outlay for TSP; secondly, activities of some Ministries/ Departments are being nondivisible

in nature, therefore, TSP cannot be earmarked; and thirdly, as a consequence, how

far will it be justifiable not to approve the outlays of the Ministries/ Departments and

States/UTs which do not earmark funds for SCP and TSP. These Issues require lot of

debate.

In respect of SCA to TSP, non-release of SCA funds on time by the State Finance

Departments to the nodal department has been adversely affecting the smooth running of

income generating programmes that are undertaken for ST families living below the poverty

line. Such delays not only frustrate the affected families but also cause predicament to the

nodal department as they are not able to utiilise the much needed funds which ultimately

remain unspent. Often, such unspent SCA funds are diverted to other purposes leaving the

earmarked/ intended purposes unattended. A Statement showing funds released and

utilized under SCA to TSP during the Ninth Plan period is appended at Annexure - VIII.

To look into the above said issues of TSP and SCA to TSP, a Central Standing

Tripartite Committee was set up by the Planning Commission in May 1999 with the

representatives of the Planning Commission, National Commission for SCs and STs, the

nodal Ministry of Tribal Affairs and the concerned Central Ministries/Departments. The

Committee has already completed the task of reviewing the SCP and TSP formulations of

the Central Ministries / Departments of Agriculture and Co-operation, Environment and

Forest , Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation, Rural Development, Indian System of

Medicine and Homeopathy, Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Water Resources, Public

Enterprises, Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Sugar and Edible Oils, Drinking Water Supply,

Statistics and Programme Implementation, Food Processing and Power. Similar Committees

are also coming up at the State level. So far, 6 States viz., Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya

Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Gujarat have already set up such committees.

Grant-in-Aid under Article 275(1) of the Constitution

Under Article 275(1) of the Constitution, grants from the Consolidated Fund of India

is extended annually to various State Governments having Scheduled Areas. The major

objective of the scheme is to raise the level of administration in the Scheduled Areas to that

of the rest of the State, besides promoting the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes living therein.

The scheme covers all the Tribal Sub Plan areas and also 4 tribal majority states in the

country. Grants to the extent of 100% are released by the nodal Ministry of Tribal Affairs

under a Central Sector Scheme. With a view to provide accessibility to quality education to

ST students, it was decided to establish 100 Residential Schools under this scheme on the

pattern of Navodaya Schools with a non-recurring grant of Rs.2.5 crore during the Ninth Plan

period. Year-wise details of the allocations and releases during the Ninth Plan period, are

given below :

Year-wise Allocations and Releases under Article 275(1) of

the Constitution during the Ninth Plan (1997-2002)

(Rs. in Crores)

Year Allocation Grant-in-aid (Released)

1997-1998

1998-1999

1999-2000

2000-2001

2001-2002

75.0

100.00

200.00

300.00

75.0

100.00

200.00

300.00

Source : Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi.

From the current year, the releases are made against the specific developmental

works/projects identified by the State Governments. One of the major constraints is the State

Governments do not release funds on time to implement the projects. A Statement

showing the Grant-in-aid released and utilized during the Ninth Five Year Plan under

the Article 275(1) is appended at Annexure IX.

Resource Allocation & Utilization

To meet the ever-increasing needs of the Scheduled Tribes, there has been a progressive

increase in the Central Plan allocations from Rs.1591.00 crore in the Eighth Plan to Rs.

3174.13 crore in the Ninth Plan. Over and above this, the Centre extends a Special Central

Assistance (SCA) of Rs.2010.00 crores as an additive to State TSP and Rs.750.00 crore as

the Grant-in-aid under the Article 275(1) of the Constitution for betterment of the

administration of Scheduled Areas and the Tribal living therein, as per the details given

below :

Outlays and Expenditure under the Tribal Affairs Sector in the Ninth Plan (1997-2002)

(Rs. in crore) ore)

Sector/

Program

me

IX Plan

Outlay

(1997-

2002)

(1997-

98)

Actual

s

(1998-

99)

Actual

s

(1999-

2000)

Actuals

(2000-

01)

Actual

s

(1997-

01)

Actua

ls

(2001-

02)

Outla

y

Likely

Exp.

of the IX

Plan

(1997-

2002)

%

Col.9

to

Col.2

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

- CS /

CSS

- SCA to

TSP

- GIA

under

Article

275(1)

TOTAL

414.13

2010.00

750.00

61.80

329.61

75.00

73.84

380.00

75.00

60.72

400.00

100.00

123.78

400.00

191.29

320.1

1509.

441.2

240.00

500.00

300.00

560.14

2009.61

741.29

135.26

99.98

98.84

* Includes Rs.2092 crore for SCA to SCP and Excludes Rs.2010 crore (Provisional) as SCA to TSP;

Rs.750 crore

(Provisional) as Grant-in-aid under Article 275(1) of the Constitution; Rs.250 crore for Kasturba

Gandhi Swatantrata

Vidyalaya (KGSV); and iv) Rs.60 crore for Animal Welfare (Write-up on Animal Welfare is Available

under the

Chapter `Environment & Forests'.

# Revised Estimates (1998-99)

Source : Mid Term Appraisal, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

CHAPTER -IV

IMPACT OF PLANS, POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES

Various developmental plans, policies and programmes have brought forth a

perceptible improvement in the socio-economic status of STs. The achievements and

the serious gaps under the three core sectors of education, health and economic

development, are detailed below :

Educational Development

Literacy Rates of STs - The Gains and the Gaps (1971-91)

Category 1971 1981 1991 2001

General Population 29.45 36.23 52.21 65.38

Scheduled Tribes 11.30 16.35 29.60 Not Yet

Gap between STs and the 18.15 19.88 22.61 Available

General Population

* Excludes 0-6 age-group.

Source: Educational Development of SCs and STs, Department of Education, 1995.

Although, there has been a substantial increase in the literacy rates of STs during the last

three developmental decades, the gap between the literacy rates of STs and those of

the general population is not only persisting but is also found to be widening. Besides

these there are the problems of intra and inter-State/ District and intra and inter-community

variations in the literacy rates amongst STs.

Similarly, Female Literacy', which is an important indicator in the field of education, has

shown a progressive trend in respect of STs, as given below :

Female Literacy Rates of STs and General Population (1971, 1981 & 1991)

Category 1971 1981 1991 2001

Female Literacy Rates

All Communities 18.69 29.85 39.29 54.16

Scheduled Tribes (STs) 4.85 8.04 18.19 Not

Gap between STs and 4.85 8.04 18.19 Not

All communities

Source: Educational Development of SCs and STs, Department of Education, 1995

The data reveals that the female literacy rates in respect of STs have increased

substantially from 4.85% in 1971 to 18.19% in 1991. However, the wide gap between ST

females and the general population continued to remain the same except for a slight decline

during the last two decades.

While considerable progress registered in the literacy rates amongst STs, their

enrolment ratios when compared to the general population present a mixed picture, as per

the details given in the Table below :

Gross Enrolment Ratios of STs and General Population

Levels/Years General Population Scheduled Tribes

Total Girls Total Girls

1990-91

I-V (6-11 Yrs) 100.1 85.5 85.9 68.2

VI - VIII (11-14 Yrs) 62.1 47.0 32.2 21.9

1999-2000

I-V ( 6-11 Yrs) 94.9 85.2 97.7 82.7

VI-VIII (11-14 Yrs) 58.8 49.7 58.0 44.8

Pace of Progress

- I-V (6-11 Yrs) (-) 5.2 (-) 0.3 (+) 11.8 (+) 14.5

(Primary level)

- VI-VIII (-) 3.3 (+) 2.7 (+) 25.8 (+) 22.9

(Middle level)

Source : Annual Report 2000-01, Deptt. of Education., New Delhi.

The overall increase in terms of enrolment ratios of STs at primary and middle levels

between 1990-91 and 1999-2000, has been quite impressive, as compared to the general

population. The other significant aspect is the good pace maintained by the ST girls,

especially at primary level.

The drop-out rate, which is another crucial indicator in the field of educational

development also shows that there has been a steady decline in respect of both general and

ST categories as per the information given below :

Drop-Out Rates amongst STs in 1990-91 and 1993-94

Category (Classes I – VIII) .

1990 -91 1993-94

General 60.9 60.5

ST 78.6 77.7

GAP 17.7 17.2

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Source: Educational Profile of Status/UTs., Dept. of Education, New Delhi.

The problem of drop-outs happens to be a common feature for both general

population and STs. While both the categories have been showing a decreasing trend during

1990-91 to 1993-94, the problem appears to be the worst with regard to STs as they

have very high drop-out rates ranging from 77.7 to 78.6 during Classes I to VIII. Also,

the gap between the general population and STs was also found to be widening, which is a

cause for much greater concern.

Economic Development

The strategy of promoting employment-cum-income generating activities to

alleviate poverty amongst STs has proved effective in raising a large number of ST

families from the level of `Below Poverty Line' during the decade between 1983-84 and

1993-94, as quantified below:

Percentage of Population Living Below Poverty Line

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Category 1983-84 1993-94 Percentage Decrease

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

General 44.48 35.97 (-) 8.51

STs 63.14 51.14 (-) 12.00

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Source : Perspective Planning Division, Planning Commission

Note : The aggregate poverty ratio of ST population in 1983- 84 has been worked

out as a weighted average of rural and urban poverty ratio using 1981

Census population of the respective Groups in rural and urban areas as

weights. In a similar way, 1991 Census population are used to obtain

aggregate poverty ratio for these two groups in 1993-94.

Along with the general population, the percentage of ST families living below the

poverty line has also shown a declining trend during 1984-1994. It is very encouraging to

note that - i) the rate of decline in respect of STs is much higher than that of the general

population; and ii) the gap between the poverty rates of the general population and of the

STs has also been reduced during the same period. However, the incidence of poverty

amongst STs still continues to be very high with 51.14 per cent when compared to

35.97 per cent in respect of general population in 1993-94. This is primarily because a

large number of Scheduled Tribes below poverty line are landless with no productive assets

and also do not have access to sustainable employment and minimum wages. The women

belonging to these Groups suffer from the added disadvantage of being some time denied

even equal and minimum wages.

Participation of STs in Decision Making

Administration

Participation of STs in administration is another indicator of positive impact of

developmental planning on the status of STs. The following two Tables reflect the

representation of STs in the All India Services and other services.

Representation of STs in All India Services of Administration

STs in the All India Services of IAS, IPS, IFS

Category IAS IPS IFS

1996 2000 1996 2000 2000

General

STs

5047

270

(5.3%)

5159

261

(5.1%)

2947

3301

229

(6.9%)

2070

184

(8.8%)

Source : Deptt. of Personnel & Training, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India.

Representation of STs in Government Services during 1974 to 1999

Category G r o u p s Total

A B C D

As on 1.1.1974

Total 33672 52343 1566796 1242548 2895359

ST 155 258 33383 47679 81475

(0.46) (0.49) (2.13) (3.84) (2.81)

As on 1.1.1984

Total - - - - 3303342

ST - - - - 149391

(4.52)

As on 1.1.1994

Total 59016 103198 2381613 1023285 3567112

ST 1727 2902 128228 62945 195802

(2.92) (2.81) (5.38) (6.15) (5.48)

As on 1.1.1999

Total 93520 104963 2396426 949353 3544262

ST 3172 3512 145482 66487 218653

(3.39) (3.35) (6.07) (7.00) (6.17)

Source: Department of Personnel & Public Grievances & Pension, Annual Reports 1994 &

2000-01.

Note: i) Data refers to Government of India only

ii) Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage STs to the total Central

Government Services

Although, the total representation of STs in services covering A to D Group has risen from

2.81% in 1974 to 5.48% in 1994, they are yet to reach their population-proportionate

representation of 8.08%. Similar situation remains with regard to representation of STs in the

all India services

However, the increasing participation of STs in Group `A' Services, that is from a

mere 0.46% in 1974 to 3.39% in 1999 reflects the impact of various affirmative measures

taken in bringing them into the mainstream. At the same time, the data also reveals gaps

that need to be bridged with effective interventions, if STs have to be brought on par with the

general population, especially in respect of Group A Posts, the level at which the decisionmaking

takes place.

Political

Affirmative discrimination through reservation for STs in the Lok Sabha, State

Legislative Assemblies and in the PRSs has established the growing strength of STs not

only in terms of their participation in the democratic processes of the country since

independence, but also increased their representation in the political decision-making

institutions i.e. Parliament, Legislative Assemblies and in the grass-root democratic

institutions viz., Panchayats and local bodies, as shown below :

Representation of STs in Political Decision-Making Institutions (1995-2000)

PANCHAYATRAJ INSTITUTIONS (PRIs)

Category

Gram

Panchayats

Panchayat

Samithis

Zilla

Parishad

s

Total

PRIs

State

Legislative

Assemblies

Lok

Sabha

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Total

STs

2502621

252791

131016

7249

13620

1196

2647257

261236

543

4072

530

Source : 1. Election Commission, New Delhi

2. Ministry of Rural Areas & Employment, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

CHAPTER - V

TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT : SOME SECTORAL PROBLEMS

Health And Nutrition

The tribal communities in general and primitive tribal group in particular have been

disease-prone in certain respects and have little access to basic health facilities, despite the

fact that norms for establishing of sub-centres, primary health center and community health

center have been relaxed for tribal areas. Their misery is compounded by poverty, illiteracy,

ignorance of causes of diseases, hostile environment, poor sanitation, lack of safe drinking

water and blind believes etc. Some special diseases of tribal areas are sickle-cell, anaemia,

tuberculosis, leprosy, G-6 PD and reproductive tract infection.

The tribals suffer from many chronic diseases but the most prevalent taking heavy

toll of them are water-borne. This is mainly due to the very poor drinking water supply. Even

when it is available in plenty, it is mostly dirty and contaminated and consequently the tribals

are easily susceptible to intestinal and skin diseases. Diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, guinea

worm, tape worm, etc.

Decadal growth of Scheduled Tribe population is reported to be higher than that of

the total population (26% is in STs as against 23.51% in total population 1991). Primitive

tribal groups, however, have lower growth rate of population. TFR (1998-99) amongst

scheduled tribe is 3.06 as against 2.66 for others.

In tribal areas percentage of girls marrying below 18 years is as high as 60%.

Regular reliable national as well as State-wise estimation of maternal mortality is not

available due to indadequate sample size covered in various demographic surveys. However

MMR is the highest in the tribal areas and most of these deaths can be prevented by

improving access to food and health care facilities and RCH services.

Infant mortality is higher in tribes as compared to non-tribes. About 79.8% of tribal

children were anaemic and 50% of the children were under weight. Only 26% of the children

in tribal areas received all vaccine. Thus tribal people need special attention for improving

their health, reproductive and child health status.

The National Health Policy (1993) while recognizing the heterogeneous tribal

population and their varied health problems, accorded a high priority for extending the health

services to those residing in the backward rural areas, with a concentration of STs. It laid

special attention on the endemic diseases like Malaria, Tuberculosis, and Yaws etc. The

strategy adopted for meeting the health care needs including provision of preventive, as well

as curative services through the primary health care institutions and at the villages level

through Health Guides and Trained Dais.

Due to local geographical and ecological conditions and relatively less accessible

areas of tribal habitations, the mobile dispensaries and health centres shall be more

purposeful than the static one. However, it is also not realistic to provide these mobile

centers with ambulance or large vans which often cannot get along the rough roads/tracks

even in fine weather. An ordinary jeep is quite sufficient to take a doctor with his staff and

medicines to a number of outlying villages. It might even be considered that an improved

type of bullock cart could be sometimes used for the mobile units. In the north-eastern region

these units have to be in the most difficult countryside on foot, and doctors there perform

successful operations under the most adverse circumstances in the village camps. It

requires sincerity and dedication to work under such conditions.

Another very important problem concerning health in the tribal areas is the addiction

of the tribals to spirits and highly intoxicating liquors and drinks. The indigenous liquor is

prepared by fermentation of the rice, millets and other grains. This is the traditional liquor of

the tribals which is prepared within the four walls of the home and consumed by all the family

members. The second variety is the distilled liquor which the license holders from the

government sell. It is really an intoxicant and carries little food value. The poor tribals, in

most cases are coerced to discontinue the preparation of homemade liquor and made to

purchase the distilled liquor from the contractors. After making them addicts of this variety of

liquor they are made to part with the property or enter into exploitative bargains. The only

practical solution is the banishment of liquor contractors and the harmful liquor from the tribal

areas so that they may be left free to brew their own liquor and fulfil one of their important

nutritional and cultural needs by themselves.

Drug addiction is another serious health problem with several tribes. Singpho tribe of

Arunachal Pradesh is a case in point. From 40,000 about 150 years ago, the singaphos

have been reduced to around 1,000. Though recurring wars, disease and malnutrition have

played a role but deadly addiction to opium is the chief culprit for their fast dwindling

population. It is said that opium has diminished the tribe’s fertility, increased the death and

contributed to the vicious circle of poverty. Almost every house of the Singpo has a small

hearth in one of the corners above which hang a blowpipe, a large spatula, and a packet of

raw tea leaves, opium and tobacco. At any time of the day haggard, skinny tribesmen can be

seen making tobacco-opium concoction that they smoke along with generous swigs of the

bitter tea liquor. Opium has become inseparable part of Singhpo life. One can detect a

Singhpo by smell. They have become too indolent to look after their cattle and lands yet they

must have opium, mostly by selling the elephants they trap. They have smoked it for

decades and their forefathers were induced to it by the British. Official agencies and more

importantly some devoted and sincere reformist Singhpo and voluntary social organizations

have begun a serious campaign to wean the addicts away from opium. Let us hope that they

would succeed in their efforts.

The speedy spread of health education among the tribals is very crucial. As most of

the tribals are illiterate, various audio-visual methods may be adopted to put across to them

the basic principles of health and sanitation. Needless to say that for raising the standard of

health of the tribals, cooperative endeavour is necessary among the States, the center the

non-official organizations and the medical personnel.

The National Population Policy, 2000, therefore, recognized that these communities

need special attention in terms of basic health, and reproductive and child health services

and has spelt out operational strategies in the Action Plan for Tribal Communities, Hill Area

Population and Displaced and Migrant Population as under:-

• Many tribal communities (Primitive Tribal Groups) are dwindling in numbers, and may

not need fertility regulation. Instead, they may need information and conselling in

respect of infertility.

• The NGO sector may have to be encouraged to formulate and implement a system of

preventive and curative health care that responds to seasonal variations in the

availability of work, income and food for tribal and hill area communities and migrant

and displaced populations. To begin with, mobile clinics may provide some degree of

regular coverage to outreach.

• Many tribal communities are dependent upon indigenous system of medicine, which

necessitates a regular supply of local flora, fauna and minerals, or of standardized

medication derived from these. Husbandry of such local resources and of preparation

and distribution of standardized formulations should be encouraged.

• Practitioners of Indigenous System of Medicine are heavily dependent on the natural

medicinal plants. Traditionally, tribes-people are also dependent on natural sources

for other needs such as primary and supplementary nutrition, contraceptives and

general livelihood. Hence, it is necessary to ensure availability of medicinal and

nutritional herbs in the natural resources surrounding tribal habitats and prevent

destructive over utilization of these natural resources.

• Health care providers in the public, private and NGOs sectors will have to be

sensitized to adopt a "burden of disease" approach to meet the special need of tribal

and hill area communities.

• Local practitioner of traditional medicines and traditional birth attendants (Dais) are

required to be properly trained and equipped.

• Immunisation of all infants against six vaccine preventable diseases.

• Ensuring food supply by starting "Food for Work" schemes.

• Removing malnutrition and micro-nutrient deficiency.

Literacy and Education

Educationally the tribal people are at different levels of development but, on the

whole, formal education made a very little impact on tribal groups. In the light of the past

efforts it is not shocking because prior to 1950, the Government of India had no direct

programme for the education of the tribals. With the adoption of the Constitution, the

promotion of education of Scheduled Tribes has become a special responsibility of the

Central as well as of the State Governments. The total picture of spread of education among

the tribals is not very encouraging, barring a few tribes of north-eastern region like the

Khasi, Naga, Mizo & the Garo, etc., who benefited from the vast network of Christian

missionary institutions.

Barring the tribal communities of north-eastern region, it is still a widespread feeling

among the tribals that education makes their boys defiant and insolent and alienate them

from the rest of their society, while the girls turn modern or go astray. Since some of their

educated boys felt alienated and cut off their bonds with their families and villages after

getting education and good employment, some of the tribal groups vehemently oppose the

spread of education in their midst. Besides, some of their superstitions and myths also play

their part. Some tribal groups believe that their gods shall be angry if they send their children

to schools run by ‘outsiders’.

Besides the social factors explained above, economic factors are also responsible for

lack of interest shown by the tribal people in getting education. Since most of the tribal

people are living in abject poverty under subsistence economy, it is not easy for most of

them to send their children to schools thus losing two healthy hands in their struggle for

survival. Varrier Elwin (1963) very appropriately summarised the situation in the following

paragraph:-

"For a tribal family, to send its grown up girl or boy to school, is essentially a matter of

economics; and entails dislocation in the traditional pattern of division of

labour…..many parents cannot just afford to send their children to school."

Srivastava (1968), on the basis of his survey of educational situation among the tribals,

supports this view by saying poor economic conditions of tribal societies is a great hindrance

to successful education. Almost all the tribes-whether food gatherers, hunters, fishermen,

shifting cultivators, or settled agriculturists lack enough food to maintain the family for the

whole year. Education, therefore, is a luxury to them which they can hardly afford. Each

school going child in a tribal family is an economic unit and contributes to the family income.

If the child is taken away from his normal economic work to attend school, the family is

deprived of the little income which he brings. Instead, the parents have to feed the child out

of their earnings which further reduces the economic stability of the family. According to the

present system of education any economic benefit a tribal child can bring to his family will be

only after ten or fifteen years of schooling. The parents have neither the patience nor the

foresight to wait for such a long period. They can, however, be convinced easily if the

education for them can be made productive right from the very beginning. It is in this context

that we should provide adequate incentive to parents of economically poor tribals so that

they send their children to school and the consequential loss of income is provided through

the incentive.

Lack of interest in formal education

Sharma (1976) has rightly pointed out that the "urban middle class oriented educational

system has got superimposed on the entire nation both in terms of its structure and content.

In many states tribal children are taught through the same books which form the curriculum

of non-tribal children of the urban and rural areas of the rest of the state. Obviously, the

content of such books rarely appeals the tribal children who come from different cultural

backgrounds. Stories of scientific and technological progress, founders of modern India,

history and geography of the country, etc., of course, form necessary part of any curriculum

but the situation demands that their education should start with the teaching of demography,

history and ecology of their own region, their neighbourhood and the State. National

consciousness should not be imposed from above or outside, but they should be made

aware of it in a systematic manner.

Education in India has spread in a haphazard way without taking care of future

needs. Tribal education also could not escape this anomaly and became instant failure due

to apathy, indifference and lack of interest of the tribal people in formal education. S.N. Rath

has put forward the following which is not only recommendatory in nature but also analyses

the malady with clarity.

• Under the traditional tribal set up a child enters adulthood with con-fidence. He

knows his environment thoroughly, knows how to construct his own house,

cultivate his field, weave his cloth; in short he acquires all the skills to lead a

reasonably comfortable life within the limitations of his culture. The simple skill

of reading and writing acquired in an over formal school is no match for this. We

cannot afford to push him back to his environment naked. Therefore, a balance

should be struck somewhere to evolve a system of curricula where the tribal

school, in addition to being a part of the national scheme, should have a

supplementary curriculum adapted to the specific local conditions.

• The supplementary curriculum should be biased towards crafts and should

inculcate a sense of dignity of labour, qualities of cooperation and social

discipline. Certain tribal activities like agriculture, dancing, hunting, tribal games

and archery must be allowed to find fullest expression in the extra-curricular

activities of the school, thus providing some continuity of the traditional values

and forms of organization.

• A scheme is to be worked out through which the school children shall be able to

link up the school and the teacher with their parents and the tribal activities. The

school has to act as a center of dispersal of simple technical know-how beyond

the skills of reading and writing to become an effective agent of social change.

This student-teacher-parent continuum should be able to generate a congenial

atmosphere, so that the broad purpose of education, which is to enable an

average citizen to comprehend the social, political, economic and other

processes and forces around him, is fully served.

• Needless to say this utopian scheme largely depends upon suitably trained and

dedicated teachers.

Problem of Teachers

Lack of suitable teachers is another major reason for the slow growth of education in

tribal areas. Most of the teachers employed for imparting education to the tribal children

show little appreciation of tribal way of life and value system. They approach tribal people

with a sense of superiority and treat them as ‘savage’ and ‘uncivilized’ and hence fail to

establish proper rapport with their students. The Scheduledal Areas and Sheduled Tribes

Commission's report says that a teacher in the tribal areas must have a thorough knowledge

of tribal life and culture. He must speak tribal language. Only so can he be in a position to

act as a friend, philosopher and guide to the tribal people. Actually the gulf between teachers

and taught can be best reduced by appointing teachers from the tribal community itself or a

separate cadre of teachers fro tribal areas, with some inducements, should be created to

serve the educational needs of the tribal society needs of the tribal society.

Lack of Facilities

Following are some of the observations that need consideration:

• One of the major problems in tribal education is that of language. Most of the tribal

languages and dialects are in the most rudimentary stage and there is hardly any

written literature. Most of the states impart education to tribal and non-tribal

children alike through the medium of the regional language, which makes the

education uninteresting and also hurts sentiments for his own language.

• Nature of habitat: Most of the tribal villages are scattered. This entails long travels

to attend schools. Unless the school is situated very close to their villages and its

site approved by the local people the result shall not be encouraging.

• School building also plays an important role in the growth of education among the

tribal folk. Due to mismanagement, bungling and sometimes financial constraints,

the building is seldom suitable to run an educational institution.

• Number of teachers: Most of the primary schools run in tribal areas are "single

teacher-managed whose presence in the school is more an exception than a rule".

• The enthusiasm of tribal people in the education of their children also depends

considerably on the timing of school hours in different seasons. It should not clash

with their important socio-economic activities and events.

Stagnation And Wastage

To many observers of the situation, the problem of education in tribal areas is the

problem of wastage. It is not that wastage and stagnation are peculiar to the tribal

communities alone but the extent of wastage is much larger in their case. The problem of

absenteeism is a serious one in tribal areas. One sees a large number of students on rolls

but the actual attendance is really low, and the number of students passing out at the final

examinations is even lower. The real problem is to create such economic conditions as could

be conducive to the students developing sufficient interest in their studies.

Education being the most effective instrument of empowering the Socially

Disadvantaged Groups, all-out efforts should be made to improve the educational status of

these groups, especially that of the Women and the Girl Child. In fact, the educational

backwardness, prevalent amongst these people, necessitates an added thrust on their

education, training and skill upgradation as it will bring forth not only social empowerment

but also economic empowerment. Therefore, the endeavour should be to provide suitable

education keeping in view, their cultural milieu, their genius and their special needs, through:

• Universalisation of primary education by 2007 A.D. with a special focus on lowliteracy

pockets and on the educationally backward communities like STs

‘Reaching the Unreached’ through removal of the existing problem of inaccessibility

by providing residential schools in the remote and the far-flung tribal areas, hostel

facilities etc.

• Extending special concessions like free education; free supply of books;

uniforms/stationery; scholarships/fellowships.

• Special efforts to vocationalise education both at the middle/high school levels

which can equip the Disadvantaged Groups either for wage/self-employment.

• Encouraging higher and technical/professional education amongst these, through

effective implementation of Post-Matric Scholarships with an added thrust and

wider coverage.

Providing more opportunities for these Groups to appear in the competitive

examinations and get into the stream of planning and decision making process through

expansion of pre-expansion coaching services. In this context, the earlier initiative of the

Government to start crèche facilities within the school campus or nearer to the school should

be revived/intensified to ensure that the girl children are not deprived of education as they

have to play the role of a mother-substitute in many respects, when the mothers go out for

work to supplement the family income. Also, the much-needed nutritional support through

the national feeding programme of Mid-Day Meals (MDM) should be expanded/universalized

to reach the most interior and inaccessible rural, tribal and hill areas.

The spread of literacy through the efforts of the National Literacy Mission should be

ensured so as to reach the backward rural, tribal where the incidence of illiteracy especially

amongst women and girl children belonging to these weaker sections is very high residential

schools and schools with attached hostel facilities right upto the block-level should be

encouraged to solve the present problem of inaccessibility of schools being faced by the girls

in the backward rural and tribal areas. The recent launching of Kasturba Gandhi Swatantrata

Vidyalayas in 1997 is one of such initiatives exclusively meant for the educational

improvement of girl children belonging to SCs, STs, OBCs and Minorities.

Employment-oriented education and diversified vocational training, which has been

recognized as the need of the day, should be given top priority. Special efforts should be

made to vocationalise education both at the middle/high school levels, depending upon the

need and demand. Also, job-oriented condensed courses should be accorded priority to

extend functionally viable and productive education in tribal areas. Monitoring of the working

of these institutions will be taken up through PRIs to ensure un-interrupted and smooth

imparting of education to the target population, especially those living below the poverty line.

It is also essential that existing educational schemes of Ministry of Tribal Affairs need

consolidation. It is suggested that ST boys and girls could be admitted in Navodaya Schools

or other reputed educational institutions. All expenses for pursuing their studies may be met

by State and Central Governments. This will help in integration of tribal society into

mainstream. It will also develop competitive spirit among them since present educational

schemes of Ministry of Tribal Affairs do not have satisfactory achievement since inception of

this scheme.

While education upto class V as indicated above should be provided locally in

local language with emphasis on vocations and traditional practices, through local teachers,

education from class VI should be through residential hostels and in reputed schools in the

state, so that the tribal may be exposed to general environment instead of the present

system of segregating them through separate schools meant exclusively for STs. For this

purpose admission should be provided in Navodaya Vidyalayas, Kendriya Vidyalayas and

other reputed schools.

Protection And Development

The New Economic Policy and the Scheduled Areas

The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution was based on the very philosophy of socialistic

pattern of society. The last decade has witnessed a reversal of this philosophy and the

economic policies and reforms being taken up are leading towards a negative approach to

the disadvantaged classes, especially the tribal communities. There has been a clear shift

from the strong protection role of the State towards these communities to one of justification

for their exploitation in the name of economic development. The laws and protective

safeguards as laid down in the Constitution for the tribal people are facing severe changes

and amendments.

Land Alienation

The Nature of land alienation in the Scheduled Areas is broadly of two types.

i) The first is the alienation of land to non-tribals and plains-men which has

historically been the major form of transfer of land from tribals. The State was

meant to play a pro-active role in ensuring that tribal lands are restored back from

non-tribals in this kind of exploitation. Different state governments had framed

different kinds of protective laws under this and the results have been varied.

Andhra Pradesh has an exemplary land regulation called the Land Transfer

Regulation Act of 1959 later amended in 1970. Despite such a strong legislation,

there are a large number of pending cases where land has to be restored to the

tribals. In order to effect this what is required are:

• A strong political will to dispose of the cases.

• Transparency and access to land records at the village level to tribals in the

local languages, not only in English.

• Speedy disposal of cases where tribals are involved and oral evidence to be

considered where records are absent.

• All pending land disputes should be settled immediately so that tribals do not

face constant harassment from non-tribals, revenue and other departments.

• Regular updating of land records, proper and regular conduct of Jamabandhi,

display of revenue details at the village level should be implemented.

• Where lands are restored to tribals, the non-tribals get stay orders from the

courts. This should not be allowed as the lands are again in the enjoyment of

non tribals.

• Tribals and NGO’s should be allowed to participate in the process of survey of

lands.

• Villages with majority tribal population adjoining scheduled areas should also be

included in scheduled areas; specific pockets of majority tribal (ST) population

which have been excluded from scheduled area should be included.

• Sufficient staff should be posted in the revenue department for speedy

settlement of cases.

• States which have specific pockets of tribal areas/population should demarcate

these pockets as scheduled areas under the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution.

• All States with Scheduled areas should have the prohibitory clause on transfer

of lands from tribals.

• All forest villagers should be given patta for the land which they are cultivating

since ages.

ii) The second important type of land alienation and which is an increasing trend in

this decade is State induced tribal land alienation. The case of Samatha against the

State of A.P. is a classic example of how the State has been violating its own

constitutional duty in the Fifth Schedule areas. In the name of economic

development through industrialization, the State has been alienating tribal lands to

private industries and development projects like mining, hydro-electric projects,

tourism and other projects (even for schools where no tribal child is admitted).

Research studies, NGO’s, local tribal revolts and campaigns have clearly brought

out the evidence that these projects have far from resulted in any form of

economic, social or political empowerment or progress to tribal communities

affected by these projects. There are several serious and complex issues which

need to be resolved in this connection.

Displacement

Since Independence, tribals displaced by development projects or industries have not

been rehabilitated to date. Research shows that the number of displaced tribals till 1990 is

about 85.39 lakhs (55.16% of total displaced) of whom 64.23% are yet to be rehabilitated.

(source: Walter Fernandes, 1994). Although accurate figures of displacement vary it is clear

that majority of those displaced have not been rehabilitated. Those displaced have been

forced to migrate to new areas and most often have encroached on to forest lands and are,

on record, considered illegal. It is a known fact that displacement has led to far reaching

negative social and economic consequences, not to mention the simmering disturbances

and extremism in most of the tribal pockets. Economic planning cannot turn a blind eye to

these consequences in the light of displacement.

• State induced land alienation negates the very Fifth Schedule of the Constitution

and also stands to question the control and ownership of land and natural

resources which is so essential to tribal way of life. Alienation of land also leads to

alienation of the surrounding livelihood resources which the tribals depend on.

While setting up industries and other projects these connecting impacts have never

been taken into account or compensated. This cannot be any longer ignored.

• While on the one side, tribals were alienated from their lands, there has not been

any remarkable progress on health, education or infrastructure development. It has

been a myth that industrialization would lead to a corresponding improvement in

these sectors among the local tribals. It has only proved that they have been further

marginalized from whatever rights and resources earlier enjoyed by them. There

has been no attempt to improve the skills of the tribals to compete with the

mainstream societies in taking up any responsible positions in the industries set up

in their areas.

• All projects in tribal areas were considered ‘public purpose’ even for private mining

industries. This is the biggest fallacy of our development paradigms in tribal areas.

Extremism, terrorism and political disturbances in the tribal areas are a result of either

exploitation or neglect of these areas and the degradation is further exploited by these

militant groups. Hence, it is the first primary duty of the state to address the actual socioeconomic

problems of the tribal people and not deal with it as an adhoc law and order

problem. Ruling the regions with armed forces as in the Sixth Schedule areas or pouring in

squads of police battalions cannot solve the problem of violence or unrest in these areas. It

is repeatedly emphasized that political will to provide justice to tribals, ensure rights over

their lands and forest resources, stop taking up any projects that would displace tribals is a

pre-requisite to putting an end to the violence and unrest in these areas.

Other Important Areas

Reservations

• To maintain social justice within the tribal population, categorization of ST’s under

A,B,C, D categories as with SC’s should be followed. Apart from this the criteria of

reservation should extend to private sector undertakings in scheduled area.

Administration

• All States having Scheduled Areas should have Integrated Tribal Welfare Agencies

or their equivalents and 30% of the revenue from excise and any other form of

income should be allocated to these agencies.

• A periodic and independent review of tribal administration at the national, state and

district/ITDA levels should be taken up.

• Officers posted in the tribal areas (IAS, IPS, IFS) should have a strong

understanding, orientation and empathy to tribal rights and culture.

• The tenure of the officers should be fixed for at least a minimum period of 3 years

so as to give consistency to the programmes/action initiated during their respective

tenures.

• Awareness and sympathy of police department on understanding tribal problems,

on taking action against atrocities on tribals, the laws relevant (SC/ST prevention of

Atrocities Act and others), is poor. There is a growing violence against tribals

especially State induced violence in the name of maintaining law and order. This

should be curbed and police harassment on tribals should be stopped. Police

should not refuse to register cases filed by tribals on any atrocities against them.

(E.g.:PND Palem village in Natavaram mandal of Vizag district in A.P.)

• Elections to Gram Panchayats should be immediately conducted in Scheduled

Areas.

• Primary Education should not be privatized or handed over to private institutions

particularly in the tribal areas, as it is the primary responsibility of the State and a

Fundamental Right of all citizens.

CHAPTER - VI

THE UNRESOLVED ISSUES OF TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT

While progress made by STs in terms of various achievements enumerated is a matter of

satisfaction, yet a lot more needs to be done with much more concentrated focus on the

following Unresolved Issues which are crucial to raise the status of tribals on par with

the rest of the population :

i) Low Literacy and High Drop-out Rates

Despite the programmes for Universalisation of primary education, which have been in

effective operation since 1986, the literacy rates of STs remain as low as 29.6%, while the

general literacy rate reached 52.2% in 1991. Similarly, the female literacy rate of STs

stood at 18.2% which is much lower in comparison to 39.3% in respect of general category.

Further, the gap between the general population and that of STs was found widening

from 19.8% to 22.6% during 1981 to 1991. Adding to this, are the problems of intra and

inter-state/ district and inter-community variations in the literacy rates of STs. Similarly,

there are districts like Jalor in Rajasthan with as low as 0.6% of ST female literacy rate

while Dibrugarh in Assam has female literacy rate as high as 89.5%.

Although, the drop-out rates have been showing a declining trend amongst STs in Classes

I to VIII from 78.6% in 1990-91 to 77.7% in 1993-94, yet the same is still very high when

compared to 60.9% and 60.5% of general categories, respectively for the same years. Also,

the gap is widening between the STs and the general population. This requires target

oriented interventions.

ii) Inadequate/Inaccessible Health Services

The following have been identified as the major contributors to the increased disease

burden amongst the tribal communities - i) poverty and consequent malnutrition; ii)

poor environmental sanitation, poor hygiene and lack of safe drinking water, leading

to increased morbidity from water and vector-borne infections; iii) lack of access to

health care facilities resulting in increased severity and/or duration of illness; iv)

social barriers preventing utilisation of available health care services; v) vulnerability

to specific diseases like G-6 PD deficiency, Yaws, and other endemic diseases like

malaria etc.

Also, the tribal population, being heterogeneous, there are wide variations in their health

status, access and also utilization of health services. The tribal population of North Eastern

States, being heighty literate and health conscious, excel themselves in utilization of the

available health facilites. Therefore, their health indicators are much better than those at the

national level, despite the fact that the region is endemic for malaria. On the Other hand,

Primitive tribes remain with inadequate access to both education and health care.

iii) Nutritional Deficiencies and diseases

The nutritional status of various Scheduled Tribes varies from tribe to tribe, depending upon

the social, economic, cultural and ecological background. Though, no systematic and

comprehensive research investigations have been carried out, it appears that malnutrition

amongst the tribals, especially tribal children and women is fairly common,

debilitating their physical condition, lowering resistance to disease, and in the postweaning

period, leading, at times even to permanent brain impairment. To quote the

Ninth Plan Working Group on the Tribal Development, `Experts have opined that not a

single tribe in the different States of India can said to be having a satisfactory dietary

pattern as Tribal diets are frequently deficient in calcium, vitamin A, vitamin C,

Riboflavin and animal protein'.

Further, high incidence of malnutrition is observed especially among primitive tribal

groups in Phulbani, Koraput and Sundergarh districts of Orissa as also amongst the

Bhils and Garasias of Rajasthan, the Padhars, Rabris and Charans of Gujarat, Onges

and Jarawas of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Yerukulas of Andhra Pradesh etc.

Most tribal women suffer from anaemia which lowers resistance to fatigue, affects working

capacity and increases susceptibility to disease. Maternal malnutrition is quite common

among tribal women and also a serious health problem, particularly for those having

closely-spaced frequent pregnancies. The nutritional status of tribal women directly

influences their reproductive performances and the birth weight of their children,

which is crucial to the infant's chances of survival, growth and development. The

Scheduled Tribes of India are thus caught in a vicious cycle of malnutrition and illhealth.

iv) Agriculture and Shifting Cultivation

Shifting Cultivation is still being practiced by the tribal population on higher slopes

of hilly areas of the country. As estimated, more than 6 lakh tribal families in the States

of North-East, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand practice shifting

cultivation, which is ecologically un-sound. The shifting cultivation is integrally linked to

the tribal economy in the areas where it is practiced and their social, economic and ritual

activities are also centred around this practice. The problem of shifting cultivation is a very

complex one involving economic, social and psychological aspects of the tribal communities.

The Ministry of Agriculture has been implementing a scheme for control and transformation

of Shifting Cultivation in the North-Eastern States, but the pace of its implementation has

been very slow. Rehabilitation of shifting cultivators should be given priority for improving

ecology and economy of tribal areas.

v) Inadequate Water Resources

Many tribal villages/habitations, and particularly those in interior hilly areas, are

devoid of - safe drinking water; and irrigation facilities. However, the National Water Policy

adopted in 1987, inter-alia, focuses on the development of water management

systems for both drinking purposes and irrigation, based on an integrated approach, to

fulfil the needs of the disadvantaged sections of the society.

Water for Drinking

Under the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme, especially through the Mission

Mode Approach adopted in rural and tribal areas, about 10.6 lakh (74.2%) habitations

have been covered fully and 3.1 lakh (21.9%) habitations partially so far, with the

provision of a safe drinking water source, as against the total 14.3 lakh identified

habitations to be covered in the country. This leaves behind only 3.9% of the Problem

Villages/Habitations. But, unfortunately, no exclusive information is available about the

number of tribal habitations covered under the programme. The problem of drinking water is

more acute in hamlets located in higher level hills where ground water cannot be tapped and

surface water is difficult and costly to be carried through the scheme to the habitation.

Water for Irrigation

According to the Agricultural Census of 1990-91, of the total net sown area of 143.84 lakh

hectares in the tribal areas only 13.2% of the cultivated land is being irrigated through

canals, tanks, wells/tube wells etc. Thus, the area of the un-irrigated land is very large. The

provision of irrigation facilities is, therefore, the key to the improvement of their agriculture

and for drought proofing.

vi) Deprivation of Forest Rights

Forest and Tribals have symbiotic relationship. Tribals continue to live in the forest

areas, although in isolation, but in harmony with nature. Recognising this dependency, the

National Forest Policy of 1988 stipulated (See box) that all agencies responsible for

forest management should ensure that the tribal people are closely associated with

the regeneration, plantations, development and harvesting of forests so as to provide

them gainful employment. Despite these special safeguards, tribals continue to struggle

for mere survival as they face formidable problems such as possession of land/house with

no rights; restrictions in the collection of minor forest produce; exploitation by middlemen;

displacement from national parks and wild sanctuaries, lack of any development in forest

villages etc. The protection of rights of tribals in forest is the key to their amelioration.

National Forest Policy and Tribals

The holders of customary rights and concessions in forest areas should be motivated to

identify themselves with the protection and development of forests from which they derive

benefits. The rights and concessions from forests should primarily be for the bonafide use of

the communities living within and around forest areas, specially the tribals.

The life of tribals and other poor living within and near forests revolves around forests. Rights

and concessions enjoyed by them should be fully protected. Their domestic requirement of

fuelwood, fodder, minor forest produce and construction timber should be the first charge on

forest produce. These and substitute materials should be made available through

conveniently located depots at reasonable prices.

Having regard for the symbiotic relationship between the tribal people and forests, the

primary task of all agencies responsible for forest management, including the Forest

Development Corporation, should be to associate the tribal people closely in the protection,

regeneration and development of forests as well as to provide gainful employment to the

people living in and around the forest, while paying special attention to the following:-

Protection, regeneration and optimum collection of minor forest produce along with

institutional arrangements for the marketing of such produce;

Development of forest villages on par with revenue villages;

Family-oriented schemes for improving the status of tribal beneficiaries;

Undertaking integrated area development programmes to meet the needs of the tribals’

economy in and around the forest areas, including the provisions of alternative sources of

domestic energy on a subsidised basis, to reduce pressure on existing forest areas.

vii) Intellectual Property Rights

The tribal communities have a very close dependence on biological resources related to

plants and animals/birds. Their livelihood and life style often depends upon and is shaped by

these resources. Therefore, their survival and sustenance is intricately linked to conservation

and utilisation of these resources. Corporate protectionism in terms of patents and

intellectual property rights (IPR) arising out of various international treaties/

instruments on trade and common property resources such as TRIPS under WTO

represents a real threat to economic livelihood of these communities as well as a

source of potential exploitation of their resource base as bio-diversity expressed in

life forms and knowledge is sought to be converted into private property and treated

as an open access system for free exploitation by those who want to privatise and

patent it. There is an urgent need to provide appropriate legal and institutional

arrangements for recognising and acknowledging the rights of tribal communities to such

resources and knowledge.

viii) Land Alienation

Land is not only the most important productive resource base for the tribals, but also

occupies an important place in their psyche as the main-stay of their social and

religious practices. Over a period of time, this resource base of the tribal communities

has tended to get eroded not only through acquisition for public purposes but also

through fraudulent transfers, forcible eviction, mortgages, leases and encroachments.

As per the information available with the Ministry of Rural Development in January 1999 -

while 4.65 lakh cases of alienation of tribal land covering an area of 9.17 lakh acres,

were registered in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal

Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tripura,

only 2 lakh cases were disposed of in favour of 1.56 lakh tribal families covering an

area of 5.31 lakh acres. Of these, the States affected by large scale tribal land alienation

are - Andhra Pradesh (2.79 lakh acres); Madhya Pradesh (1.58 lakh acres); Karnataka (1.30

lakh acres); and Gujarat (1.16 lakh acres) (Details at Annexure - XI). As pointed out by

various studies lack of political and administrative will continues to be the cause for the

perpetuation of the problem of land alienation amongst tribals as reflected in the reluctance

to amend legal provisions to plug loopholes and swift administrative action to identify

alienated land, and restoring it to the tribals with delivery of possession.

ix) Displacement of Tribals

Rehabilitation of the Displaced Tribals is a serious problem which is yet to receive

due attention. As per the information readily available, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa alone, a total population of 21.3

million have been displaced during 1951-90. Of whom, 8.54 million (40%) are tribals and of

those only 2.12 million (24.8%) tribals could be resettled so far. (Details are appended at

Annexure-XII).

As documented by various research studies, only a small percentage of tribal oustees

could get the benefit of rehabilitation facilities. A vast majority of tribal people

displaced by big projects are pushed into a vortex of increasing assetlessness,

unemployment, debt-bondage and destitution. Women and children among them are

the worst affected. The payment of compensation in cash directly disempowers tribals as

the exploiters in the area exhaust their money through various unproductive expenditure and

fraudulent practices. Any loss of access to traditional sources of livelihood viz - land,

forest, water, river, pasture, etc. marginalizes women more than men in the labour

market. It is only when land and other sources are regained the tribals in general and tribal

women in particular be empowered.

x) Indebtedness

The problem of indebtedness among tribals is not only an indication of their poverty but also

reflects wider economic malaise, i.e., lack of education, low purchasing/bargaining power

and lack of resources for engaging in gainful activity and meeting emergent expenditure.

Under the Fifth Schedule to the Constitution, the Governors of States with Scheduled

Areas have been given powers for making regulations for placing restrictions on

money-lending activities in such Scheduled Areas. Relevant Laws/Regulations exist in

16 TSP States/UTs to regulate the business of money -lending and to give debt relief.

However, the legal measures to curb the activities of money-lenders and traders have

failed to have much effect on the severity of the problem due to the ineffective

enforcement machinery and lack of alternative source of credits for meeting

consumption and productive needs. Lack of a sound national policy to extend

consumption credit to poor tribals has tended to make them dependent on usurious money-

lenders, which also results in their debt-bondage.

xi) Bonded Labour

Bonded labour system stands abolished by law throughout the country with effect from 25

October, 1975 by an Ordinance which was later replaced by an Act of Parliament viz., the

Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976. The responsibility for identification, release

and rehabilitation of bonded labourers rests with the State Governments. As on 31.3.1993,

the total number of bonded labourers identified in 12 States was 2,51,439 including

STs (Details at Annexure - XIII). However, no separate information on the number of tribal

bonded labourers identified, released and rehabilitated is readily available. It is essential that

the Ministry of Labour monitors the progress of identification and rehabilitation of bonded

labourers specifically in respect of STs. Also, there should be efforts on a continuing

basis to identify and rehabilitate bonded labourers in general and STs in particular.

xii) Migrant Labour

Low agricultural productivity, erosion of natural resource base, lack of employment

opportunities and increased restrictions on rights over forest produce have forced the

tribal labourers to migrate to other areas in search of wage employment. Migration of

tribal communities takes place towards agriculturally prosperous States, industrial areas or

wherever temporary employment is available. Tribal labourers in these areas are

subjected to exploitation by contractors and middlemen through practices such as

inadequate wage payment, non-provision of basic amenities and other violation of

labour laws. Force is also exercised to retain them if they make attempts to leave the

employment. Tribal women labourers are often subject to sexual exploitation etc. The

ST labourers on migration to States other than the States of their origin are not recognised

as STs and do not get facilities as STs. Despite the enactment of Inter-State Migrant

Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Condition of Service) Act, 1979, the exploitation of

migrant labourers continues to persist and there are no labour organisations to take up the

cause of such labourer.

xiii) Excise and Alcoholism

Tribal communities traditionally brew liquor from rice or other food grains for their

consumption which is also related to certain rituals or social occasions and festivities. The

initiation of Commercial vending of liquor in tribal areas has started impoverishing of

the tribal population leading them to suffer from indebtedness and exploitation of

various types. In 1975, the then Ministry of Social Welfare issued guidelines to the

States and UTs regarding Excise Policy in Tribal Areas which included discontinuing

commercial vending of liquor in tribal areas; permitting the tribal communities to brew

traditional rice beer for their consumption; and weaning them away from the habit of alcohol

consumption. Although the States and UTs have broadly accepted the guidelines,

effective follow-up action is not taken for their implementation. More important, States

with a view to augmenting their revenue tend to persist with and even extend commercial

vending of liquor in the tribal areas ignoring the harmful effect on the tribal population.

xiv) Primitive Tribal Groups

Based on a 4-Point criteria viz - i) smallness in size and diminishing in number; ii)

backwardness and isolation; iii) pre-agricultural technology; and iv) very low literacy, the

Government of India identified 75 tribal communities as Primitive Tribal Groups

(PTGs) with a total estimated population of 1.36 million in 1991, spread over 18

States/UTs (Details at Annexure - XIII).

There is a marked difference between the relatively advanced tribal groups and the primitive

tribal groups. The latter live in more interior pockets which are generally inaccessible and the

declining sources of sustenance have left them more vulnerable to food insecurity,

malnutrition and ill-health. The cultural gap between the primitive tribal groups and the nontribal

societies is wide. The socio-economic conditions of PTGs are much worse than other

tribal groups. Outstanding examples in this context are the bay-Islanders like the

Shompens, Jarawas, Sentinelese of A & N Islands. Even some of the mainland groups

which can be cited in this context include the Bondos of Orissa, Cholanaickans of

Kerala, the Abujhmarias of Chattisgarh, the Birhors of Jharkhand. As adequate

information on the demographic, educational, health and economic aspects of individual

primitive tribes is not available, immediate steps need to be taken for building up urgently a

comprehensive information/data base on them and wherever necessary to conduct

intensive studies and prepare detailed Status Reports - which should eventually form

the basis for need-based planning to improve their conditions.

xv) Tribal Women - The Neglected Lot

Even though enjoying, by and large, a better status in family and society when compared to

non-tribal communities, while at the same time sharing the load of livelihood earning on par

with men folk, besides attending to household chores, tribal women are usually a vulnerable

group within their community with poor health, nutritional and educational status. While the

general female literacy rate in 1991 was 39.3% amongst the general female population, the

same stood at as low as 0.6% amongst the tribal women of Jalor District in Rajasthan. The

tribal women also suffer from high degrees of nutritional anaemia leading to low birth-weight

amongst infants due to which high rates of IMR and MMR exist in various parts of tribal

areas in the country.

In addition, as stated earlier, a very large number of tribal women who migrate to

cities/towns or other regions as migrant labour are subjected to all types of

hardships/indignity, besides becoming victims of sexual harassment and exploitation. The

tribal culture, with more aggressive penetration of exogenous forces, also faces serious

consequences on gender relations. For example, social organization and cultural values in

Meghalaya are in a serious survival crisis with increasing male dominating structures and

processes on the ascendance. Also, the rise in witch-hunting is a veiled attempt by

interested relatives and ignorant/superstitious members of the community to deprive widows,

old and unmarried women of their rights to property and sustenance guaranteed to them

under customary law.

xvi) Tribal Children & The Tribal Girl-Child

Tribal Children, suffer from ill-health and due to nutritional deficiencies, lack of safedrinking

water and sanitation facilities and poor access to health care. This is reflected in

high rates of IMR/CMR, low enrolment ratios in schools, high drop-out rates etc, and low

level of achievement. Governmental efforts have focused on reaching a package of

services to tribal habitations through ICDS comprising health care, immunization,

supplementary nutrition, non-formal pre-school education and health and nutrition

education. However, the coverage of these services is deficient in interior/

inaccessible tribal pockets, despite the introduction of a new concept called `Mini-

Anganwadis'.

xvii) Extinction of Tribal Culture

The principles of `Panchsheel' specially adopted in the approach to tribal development

recognise the importance of tribal culture and their traditions. As pronounced in the Second

Five Year Plan, `Welfare Programmes of Scheduled Tribes have to be based on respect

and understanding of their culture and traditions and an appreciation of the social,

psychological and economic problems with which they are faced'. Thus, preservation

and promotion of tribal culture has become the prime concern in formulating various

developmental programmes for the well-being of the tribals. However, with accelerated

development, tribals have been exposed /subjected to the rapid modernisation and

industrialisation bringing them into sudden contact with non-tribal culture and social mores -

which have had deep influence on the tribal life-style and culture, positive as well as

negative. Therefore, along with various developmental policies and programmes

initiated to improve the socio-economic conditions of tribal people, there is also an

urgent need to preserve and promote various aspects of tribal culture and heritage,

including their values of cooperation, community feeling, music, dance, literature,

language, festivals/ religion, knowledge and indigenous technology, skills, arts and

handicrafts etc. The uniqueness of the tribal culture which enriches the country's cultural

mosaic, is fast disappearing and even getting distorted under powerful influences of the

dominant culture.

xviii) Extreme Poverty and Tribal Unrest

The impact of various poverty alleviation programmes put into action during the last two

developmental decades has brought down the poverty levels among STs. Still, the

incidence of poverty amongst STs continues to be very high and at 51.14%, it is much

higher when compared to 35.97% in respect of general categories during 1993-94.

Therefore, there has been increasing unrest amongst the tribals and in tribal areas in

the recent past. Radical/Extremist movements are already operating in some parts of the

country, the root cause for which is the perceived dissatisfaction with their existing conditions

and failure to access benefits and facilities promised to them. There is an urgent need to

critically review the approach and strategy of tribal protection and development

followed so far, to reorient/ change it wherever needed to ensure flow of development

benefits within a definite time-frame and restore their faith in the capability of the

government to deliver.

xix) Crimes/Atrocities Against STs

Despite the enactment and enforcement of two Special Laws viz - Protection of Civil Rights

Act of 1955 and the SCs and STs (Prevention Of Atrocities) Act of 1989 and the Indian

Penal Code (IPC), and other laws/legal provisions existing for their protection,

crimes/atrocities against the tribals, especially against women and children continue to be

very high. Also, a large number of crimes committed against STs remain unreported

because of their isolation and their reluctance due to fear and apathy of the enforcement

machinery. Tribals are most harassed by judicial processes when they are involved in

criminal/civil cases which are alien to their system of conflict resolution, and drag on for

years and sap their energy, resources and erode their self-confidence and morale.

Appropriate alternative arrangements for disposal of cases arising out of not very serious

offences locally with the help of community and without the aid of lawyers and formal court

need to be evolved.

xx) Ineffective Implementation of TSP

The special strategy of Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) has been under implementation since 1975

both at the Central and State levels with the objective of ensuring that the benefits from

various developmental sectors do not by-pass STs and accordingly funds, in population

proportion, are earmarked for the development of STs. Only 18 Central

Ministries/Departments and 23 States/UTs, are earmarking the funds for TSP. The strategy

of TSP, as it is implemented, has also become very routinised. Its impact on improving the

conditions of STs, has declined.

CHAPTER - VII

EMPOWERING THE SCHEDULED TRIBES : AN APPROACH TO THE TENTH PLAN (2002-07)

Guided by the conclusions that were recorded in the Mid-Term Appraisal of the Ninth

Five Year Plan (1997-2002) stating that ‘A small bunch of bureaucratic programmes had

done little to avert the precipitous pauperization, exploitation and disintegration of tribal

communities and therefore, most of the persistent problems like poverty, indebtedness, land

alienation, displacement, deterioration of forest villages and the tribals living therein, shifting

cultivation etc., continue to persist even till today as the ‘Unresolved Issues of Tribal

Development’, the Tenth Five Year Plan lays down its first priority in finding solutions

to these very Unresolved Issues. Solutions to this effect can best be found only when

the deprivation and exploitation of tribals is eradicated. The Tenth Plan will, therefore,

adopt eradication of deprivation/exploitation of tribals as the centre-point in its

approach, while pursuing simultaneously the Ninth Plan commitment of empowering

the tribals.

Having realized the prevailing socio-economic backwardness of tribals as emerged

through the very development process, the Tenth Plan will adopt a cautious approach not

only in taking up new initiatives, but also in implementing the on-going programmes of both

tribal-specific and tribal-related. To this effect, all the concerned Ministries /

Departments / Agencies at both Centre and State will be laid down with specific

responsibilities towards upholding the protection of the interest of the tribal at the

very fore-front. To this effect, the Tenth Plan will initiate an Integrated Approach by

involving all the concerned governmental agencies along with the mediation of NGOs

and involvement of tribal communities themselves in ensuring protection and

provision of their basic subsistence and sustenance base consisting of land, water

and forest which are their ‘Life-Line’.

In tribal areas food, fuel, fodder, water and other biomass play a crucial role in meeting daily

survival needs. The environmental degradations in the tribal areas are the combination of

the problems that have risen from low level of development, as well as impacts of recent

industrial developments. The deforestation, desertification, destruction of biomass, fire,

overgrasing etc. in the tribal areas are due to the poor inhabitants which become the agents

of their own resources depletion as they struggle to ensure the survival of their own families.

Poverty is both a cause and effect of environmental degradation.

Environmental degradation causes occurrence of drought and floods, reduction in the

biomass production and land cover condition etc. which are directly and indirectly

responsible for the degradation of soil and water resources. It affects both food production

and food security in long-term. It also creates tremendous pressure on land resourced due to

ever increasing demand for fuel and fodder.

The poor village women are most affected by environmental degradation. Fuel,

fodder, water, medicinal herbs and even food are gathered to a certain extent from the

immediate environment. But environmental degradation causes depletion of biomass which

forces the tribal women to cover longer distance in search of them. Due to shortage of fuels,

women are forced to cook at a time for one or two days. This reduces nutrients which cause

risk of infection due to eating stale food.

Environmental degradation in tribal areas is a cause and effect phenomenon.

Poverty, low income, lack of livelihood sources, non-awareness about the environment, etc.

are causes of environmental degradation. Similarly, loss of biomass, soil degradation, loss of

crop productivity etc. are the effects due to environmental degradation. Hence a two way

approach is required. First to solve the rural problems through development process and

second to protect environment through community participation by creating awareness

among them.

Sustainability is not an opinion but imperative. Future development must be ecologically

sound, self sustaining and equitable in distribution of resources and opportunities.

Circumstances warrant suitable action on following issues:-

• As a policy tribal communities living close to the forest should be involved in

regeneration, afforestation, protection and management of forest areas under Joint

Forest Management (JFM) by ensuring following conditions:-

Adequate forest areas are entrusted to well defined user groups;

Stake holders have voice and choice in decision making;

It is linked with "Food for work scheme",

Security of tenure as well as long term access to benefits from the resources are

assured.

• Forest villages should be intensively developed on the pattern of Primitive Triabl

Groups. Heritable but inalinable rights on the lands should be given on priority basis.

• Rehabilitation of shifting cultivation should be planned by promoting eco-restoration

under "Food for work" scheme. A holistic approach covering the socio-cultural and

economic aspects and issues relating to land tenure and equity should be integral to

the programme.

• Organised commercial cultivation and collection of medicinal plants should be

encouraged to ensure "Herbs for all and Health for all". Appropriate marketing will

improve economy of the tribals.

• Wildlife conservation should harmonise its activities to ensure development of tribal

communities also. No one should be displaced from the protected areas without

appropriate resettlement and rehabilitation.

• Drought proofing should be ensured by developing critical areas under "Integrated

watershed Management Programme". Bamboo plantation should be encouraged and

value addition may be ensured through product design and improved marketing by

formulating special projects.

Having realized the fact that the individual beneficiary oriented welfare

development programmes have neither lay in conformity with the traditional tribal

community system nor helped the tribals to ameliorate their conditions, efforts in the

Tenth Plan will be to involve the tribal community to implement those programmes which can

attend to the individual needs through a community-based approach. Such as JFM to this

effect, it is necessary that decisions regarding the needs of the people to be attended

and the programmes to be implemented including those of TSP are taken at the grassroot

level, where the actual needs and the problems of the tribals can be assessed

and understood through day to day interactions. Further, as effective implementation

of any programme would largely depend upon the administrative mechanisms, it is

time that the operative administrative system working for the welfare and

development of the tribals especially in the Scheduled Areas, need to be evaluated

and streamlined.

The 75 Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) spread over 18 States / UTs and living in

the most interior and inaccessible forests are subjected to extreme backwardness,

when compared to the advanced tribals. Decline in their sustenance base and its

resultant food insecurity, malnutrition and ill health forced them to live in the most

fragile conditions and some of them are even getting extinct. Since it is the question

of their very survival, the Tenth Plan, will therefore lay its priority in getting a National Plan

of Action (NPA) prepared for the `Survival, Protection and Development' of PTGs. While

getting this Plan of Action prepared, every effort will be made to make it a need-based plan

of action by taking into consideration all the necessary aspects viz., demography, health,

economic, social / cultural etc. In line with this, individual States will also be encouraged to

prepare their own Plans of Action to meet the specific needs of each PTG.

Education being the most effective instrument for Empowering Tribals, all-out

efforts will be made to improve the educational status of the tribals, especially that of

the tribal women and the tribal girl children belonging to these Groups. Education

provided to these STs will be made relevant and suitable to their milieu and their

genius. Vocationalisation of education at high school/higher secondary level, will be given

high priority so that the local youth would be gainfully engaged within their own villages with

the added strength gained through advanced knowledge and technology. In view of the

impediments faced in extending educational infrastructure and services, efforts will be made

to mobilize locally available resources especially that of human resources to help participate

actively in the educational up-liftment of the tribals. Panchayats and Gram Sabhas would

effectively be involved in the implementation of all the educational activities. Special efforts

for improving the educational status of PTGs and nomadic tribes will be made

especially through mobile schools, residential schools and community based

educational programmes. Efforts will also be made towards developing teaching

material and instruction medium in their own languages / dialects upto primary level

so that the tribal children will not only feel at ease to understand but also comfortably

communicate in the process of learning.

It is an established fact that the living conditions of the tribals reflect their poor

health and nutritional status, owing to several deficiencies and diseases originating

from hunger, malnutrition and under-nutrition. Also abject poverty, illiteracy, poor

environmental conditions, difficult terrain, traditional belief and customs, ignorance

about modern medicine and non-availability and non-utilization of health services,

further compound the depressing health situation of the tribals, especially that of

PTGs. Health and survival being the fundamental requirement of the tribals to survive

persist and develop, special strategies with preventive cum curative cum remedial

measures with improved / assured extension of health knowledge, infrastructure,

immunization services will be made especially focusing on those tribal areas and the

tribals viz. Forest villages and the PTGs who are subjected to high risk. Indian System

of Medicine especially the indigenous medicines along with the traditional knowledge and

methods of healing and the traditional medicinal men attending to tribal health needs will be

encouraged and supported. Further, health services in tribal areas will be extended by

involving Gram Sabhas and local NGOs in an assured way covering all terrains in all

seasons and focusing on the most vulnerable viz., women, children and PTGs. Also special

schemes in close collaboration with the Department of Indian System of Medicine &

Homeopathy will be developed to involve tribals not only for preserving/ growing

medicinal plants but also in processing the much wanted indigenous medicines.

The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) holistically addresses health,

nutrition and development needs of young children, adolescent boy and girl and pregnant

mothers. However, at present it has been extended to only 750 blocks of tribal areas but it

should cover all the tribal blocks of the country

Further, not only the tribals need to be supported to accomplish economic

development but they also need to be protected from the adverse effects of the ongoing

liberalization policies and market expansionism. Promotion of the activities of

national, multi-national and transnational Corporations needs to be attended very cautiously

keeping in view the special interests of the tribals, viz., their habitat, resource-base

Intellectual Rights especially with regard to indigenous medicines and their very existence is

not subjected to undesirable onslaught of the modern economic activities. Economic

empowerment of the tribals will be promoted through employment-cum-income generating

activities with an ultimate objective of alleviating their poverty. All strategies and agencies

including the tribal-specific and tribal-related Corporations and Cooperatives working

for prevention of their exploitation by middlemen and promoting self-employment and

income- generating activities will be further strengthened and streamlined through

improved measures so that their deficiencies can neither affect their functioning nor

the economic development of the tribals. These Corporations should also be able to

develop both forward and backward linkages to extend credit and marketing linkages

through the medium of Self Help Groups.

Economic development of tribals, especially those living below the poverty

line, is mainly relied upon the apex level financial organizations viz. the Corporations

(NSFDC, TDCCs) and large Cooperative Marketing Federations (LAMP and TRIEFED)

as these were exclusively set up to cater to the economic upliftment of the tribals in

specific terms while they are functioning as viable and self-sustaining financial

institutions. As pointed out in the Mid-Term Appraisal of the Ninth Plan, these

Corporations have never functioned as Corporations nor have they helped the tribals

to improve their own economic status, as expected. It is, therefore, time that these

financial institutions are geared to function not only as self-sustaining and reliable

mechanisms but also to help support in developing market linkages keeping in view

the demand for tribal products in the world market. To this effect, cultivation and

production of indigenous herbal medicines, and bamboo products having a growing demand

in the external / export market, will be promoted in the tribal areas by involving tribals in

cultivation of medicinal plants/bamboos and their scientific processing, value addition and

marketing etc. While the tribals and their forest eco-system will be put into gainful use for

producing qualitative indigenous herbal medicines, the existing NSTFDC, TRIFED and other

concerned Corporations will be made to function as supporting mechanisms for providing all

the necessary marketing facilities especially in the export market.

When the recent market expansion and activism sponsored through the

process of liberalized economy subjected many developing countries to

marginalisation and deprivation of their due rights on commodities and terms of the

trades, the interest of the weaker and vulnerable sections such as the tribal

communities do not even surface as an issue of concern at all. The tribal people

having lived closely with forest have constantly interacted with various flora and

fauna and have developed invaluable body of indigenous knowledge both in regards

to their ‘properties’ and ‘application’ - including methods of cultivation, conservation,

collection, utilization, treatment / processing methods and techniques. The

indigenous knowledge amongst tribal communities is passed from generation to

generation through the medium of oral tradition, folklore and practice finding place

and application in various life cycle events in including treatment of diseases /

ailments without any codified text or rights to accredit their legitimate ownership. Due

to the recent rise and growth of corporate protectionism, the indigenous knowledge

of the tribals acquired through the generations has been at the risk of being stripped

off from their rightful / legitimate ownership. It is in this context, special efforts will be

made during the Tenth Plan to accord appropriate legal and institutional arrangements for

recognizing and acknowledging the rights of tribal communities to such resources and

knowledge as pronounced under the parlance of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) especially

with regard to knowledge, process and products relating to various medicinal plants and

other exotic species. This would not only provide the tribals with the legal recognition and

protection of their legitimate ownership rights over the rich bio-diversity and their indigenous

knowledge and practice but also prevent exploitation of the tribal indigenous knowledge by

the outside commercial agencies.

Social justice to the tribals is realized primarily through measures that

categorically address to their physical, social and economic protection and security.

With the growing industrialization and consequent inflow of outside non-tribal exodus

into the tribal area, the native tribals are being subjected to exploitation, deprivation,

atrocities and crimes inflicted by the immigrant outsiders and the resulting

acculturation. Being subjected to abject poverty and also devoid of depletion in the

resource base, the tribals especially the tribal women who migrate to urban areas and

other regions as migrant labourers are exposed and victimized to various hardships,

sexual harassment and exploitation and bondage. As protection, security and normal

conditions for survival are the fundamental pre-requisites to formalise the process / activities

related to welfare and development of tribals, efforts will be made towards stringent

enforcement of all the tribal specific and tribal related legislations viz. PCR Act, 1955; SC /

ST POA Act, 1989; Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976; Inter-state Migrant

Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Condition of service) Act, 1979; Indian Penal

Court (IPC) etc. both within the State of domicile of the affected tribal(s) and outside.

The process of developmental planning seems to have undermined the role of

target people themselves and heavily relied upon the bureaucratic dealings. This has

resulted in the development being centred around the administrative machinery,

rather than the tribals for whom the programmes are meant for. The land-mark

achievement brought through the 73rd and 74 amendments to the Constitution in 1993

and the enactment of the PESA Act in 1996, there has been a definite shift in the

strategy of the Government to bring the tribal people into the main arena of planning

and implementation of various development programmes as the means for achieving

social justice and empowerment at the very level, where their life activities operate

and their communities function.

Also through the PESA Act of 1996, the Fifth Schedule Areas have also been

brought under the Panchayati Raj System with specific powers and responsibilities to

Gram Sabhas to ensure closer and effective participation of the tribals in their own

development by harmonizing with their culture. The Gram Sabhas as the institutions

of self and good governance will effectively be given functional powers by the

concerned States Governments through passing necessary legislations to legitimize

the tribal people’s involvement in the process of their own empowerment as active

participants rather than passive beneficiaries.

Notwithstanding the shortcomings in the implementation of the TSP strategy,

efforts in the Tenth Plan will be to motivate and gear all the concerned

Ministries/Departments both at Centre and State-levels to play their due roles

meaningfully in the socio-economic development of the tribals through effective

earmarking of funds / benefits and not merely on the basis of the proportion of tribal

population, but on the basis of their actual needs. To this effect, the sectoral

departments need to go beyond the tribal population proportionate quantification/ earmarking

of funds but by adopting an integrated approach in assessing the totality of funds required at

the very outset of the planning so that the actual needs and priorities are met with an

ensured way of accomplishing all-round development through an effective inter-sectoral

approach. Also, the support mechanisms and institutions such as ITDPs/ITDAs and

PRIs/Gram Sabhas could be geared to perform their role effectively in bringing about

the most wanted socio-economic development / empowerment of tribals and thus

raise their status on par with the rest of the society.

Absence of a comprehensive national policy for empowerment of the tribals

has been the most obvious missing link and also a big gap in the entire planning

process of empowering the tribals. Therefore, the efforts of the Tenth Plan will be to

expedite the process of formulating a National Policy for Empowering the Tribals of

India. No doubt, the pronouncement of a National Policy with set objectives and timebound

targets will definitely activate all the concerned to maximize their efforts with a

much clearer vision and direction towards achieving the Constitutional commitment

of raising the status of tribals on par with the rest of the society.

CHAPTER – VIII

RECOMMENDATIONS

Keeping in view the on-going process of Empowering the Scheduled Tribes on one

side and on the other the Tenth Plan commitment of finding solutions to the Un-resolved

Issues of Tribal Development, the Steering Committee recommends the following :

A. Policy / Plan - related

1. National Policy for Empowering Tribals (NPET)

The best efforts made through various development programmes over a period of

four and a half developmental decades could not bring forth the expected results in

improving the lot of the tribal population spread all over the country. Therefore, the need

of the day is to adopt a Comprehensive Tribal Policy generated through a Consultation

Process involving both Governmental and Non-Governmental Agencies working for the

development of tribals, tribal leaders, experts, social scientists and others concerned.

The policy so adopted should be able to provide a perspective beyond the Tenth Plan

and be able to ensure that the status of the tribal population is raised to that of the rest of

the society and they get their due share of benefit from development.

2. National Resettlement & Rehabilitation Policy(R&R)

The National Policy for Resettlement & Rehabilitation of the Displaced tribals

needs to be finalised expeditiously. The Policy should have a special focus on the

resettlement and rehabilitation of the displaced tribals. It should not only ensure that

no deterioration takes place in the living conditions of tribals that existed prior to their

displacement, but should also provide for betterment. The thrust of such a R&R policy

should centre around provision of `land for land' lost in acquisition etc.

3. Personnel Policy

There should be a definite Personnel Policy for tribal areas to ensure that - i) all the

Officers and the staff who are posted with the Ministries/ Departments handling the

welfare/development work of STs, should necessarily undergo, as a pre-requisite, the

sensitization training programmes at the State Tribal Research Institutes; ii) The training

programme should be made mandatory as has been done for the IAS officers by the

Department Of Personnel Training; iii) serving in the backward tribal areas for a period of

5 years should be made compulsory for all the concerned Officers in States which have

tribal population; iv) Officers working for the welfare and development of STs should not

be disturbed before the completion of a minimum period of 5 years, unless their conduct

is detrimental to the interests of STs; and v) provision of incentives like free

accommodation, medical facilities, special allowances etc., as already indicated above,

they should also be provided training through the Tribal Research Institutes, and where

TRIs are not existing in a particular State, they should be given training in neighbouring

State Tribal Research Institute to enable them to familiarize themselves with the

schemes and procedures and also about the problems of the tribals. This would also

enable them to develop an empathy for the tribal community and they would be able to

function more effectively.

4. A National Plan of Action for PTGs

As the Primitive Tribal Groups are struggling for their survival, some of them

are even on the verge of extinction, there is an immediate need for preparation of an

"Action Plan for Conservation and Development of each PTG. Keeping in view their

socio-cultural conditions and special needs, the proposed Action Plan should have an inbuilt

flexibility to cater to the specific needs of each such tribe and its environment

besides ensuring the basic minimum services of food security/nutrition; drinking water

supply; primary health care; primary education, housing, habitation & environment etc.

5. Special Strategies

The Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) strategy should continue to be the main plank of tribal

development, despite its shortcomings. The administrative reorganization of the TSP

areas should also be taken up so that there are viable administrative units through which

the protective measures and developmental programmes can effectively be

implemented.

• The Special Central Assistance (SCA) should be provided so as to supplement

the overall plan effort of the State after due assessment of its financial situation

and the needs of development.

• Development programmes, including family-oriented programmes taken up under

SCA to TSP should be so designed and implemented that differences within the

community should not be allowed to grow and the egalitarian structure of the

community is maintained.

• Intensive development of forest villages to be ensured by formulating special

projects and financed through grant-in-aid under the Article 275(1) of the

constitution.

• All tribal communities to be involved in Joint Forest Management with

Transparent Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on the roles, responsibilities,

security of tenure, benefit sharing etc. Detailed projects should be prepared by

ensuring linkage with "Food for work" scheme.

• Drought proofing should be ensured in all critical areas (suchas KBK area in

Orissa) by implementing "Integrated Watershed Development Programme".

B. Development - oriented

6. Health Care

• The Health Policy to meet the special needs of the tribal areas should provide the

following : i) extension of primary health infrastructure to cover both remote and

inaccessible areas with relaxed norms; ii) evolving a new strategy of combining

the indigenous tribal medicines with that of the ISM&H so as to reach the health

care to interior tribal areas and also allowing the tribals to contribute their

traditional knowledge; iii) training of motivated tribal youth as Village Health

Guides; iv) health education and health awareness amongst the tribals, v) areaspecific

strategies to improve access to and utilization of health services; vi)

specific agenda for medical research in case of killer or debilitating diseases

tribals suffer from; vii) focused programmes for eradication of Malaria, Leprosy,

Blindness Control, TB and HIV in respect of tribals; and viii) provision of PHCs,

CHCs, Sub Health Centres etc. should also form part of the spatial planning with

block as a unit. NGOs should undertake health schemes preferably where

delivery system is weak. RCH programme and PHCs in such cases may be

transferred to qualified and and competent NGOs.

• In the field of health, the status of tribals stands very precarious. The health

infrastructure and its staff in the tribal areas remains not only inadequate but also

very irresponsive to the health needs of the triblas. Therefore, special efforts

need to be made to establish the necessary health infrastructure in tribal areas

with most relaxed norms. Also, an intensive health education programme with

ISM&H health system and strategies should be launched in tribal areas relating to

preventive, curative and rehabilitative health services, as the alternative health

systems viz., indigenous medicines which are very much in vogue amonst the

tribal.

• Home remedy kits containing ISM&H Medicines may be made available to

Panchayat Leaders/Teachers/Health/Anganwadi Workers for use. All Research

Councils of ISM&H, Tribal Research Institutes, Population Research Centres and

ICMR research centres should work jointly on a regional basis to record the

efficacy of herbal drugs traditionally used by tribals.

7. Food and Nutrition

• Food and Nutrition Security is of vital importance to Tribals, especially to

PTGs, as some of them are getting extinct due to starvation and

malnutrition. Therefore, special efforts need to be made to reach the

programmes of SNP, MDM and TPDs to the far-flung tribal areas. Large

scale opening of Mini-Anganwadis with much relaxed norms and expansion

of Village Grain Banks are some of the practical strategies to `Reach the

Un-Reached' in the tribal areas. All the tribals should also be assured of total

food security by linking with "food for work" scheme under Joint Forest

Management programme.

8. Education

As education triggers all-round development, the thrust for education should be

continued vigorously with special emphasis to female education and with the emphasis

on vocationalisation of tribal education enabling tribal youths to take to employment and

self-employment.

• Keeping in view the special commitments made by the National Policy on

Education of 1986 (revised in 1992) for raising the educational status of STs

on par with others, action needs to be initiated not only for streng-thening the

ongoing programmes, but also for taking additional steps to tackle the persistent

problems of low literacy and high drop-out rates through - i) easy access to

residential schools with assured minimum standards and trained teachers

(preferably local tribals wherever feasible); ii) appropriate and adequate support

services like hostels for tribal girls and ensuring proper linkages with

supplementary nutrition; iii)extension of special incentives like scholarships,

financial assistance, free books, free uniforms, travel costs etc; iv) introduction of

local tribal dialects as the medium of instruction, especially at the lower primary

level, so as to make education socially acceptable for tribals; v) improvement in

the educational status of tribal girls with priority focus on the pockets/low female

literacy rates by setting up Residential Schools exclusively for girls with basic

amenities and money incentives to their parents; and vi) vocationalisation of

education at middle/high school levels and promote employment-oriented

courses through CTIs, ITIs and Polytechnics; and vii) subjects offered at the

under graduate level should be related to the local economy such as forestry,

horticulture, pissiculture, bee-keeping, piggery, poultry etc.

• Education facilities should form part of the overall Area Planning of the

Government. However, if there is any gap in the services, then only NGOs should

be allowed to run schools at primary level as non-recognition of NGO schools has

been creating problems to students at a later stage. However, schools beyond

sixth class should be allowed only, if they are recognized by the respective State

Governments. In this regard, it is pertinent to mention that West Bengal as a

matter of policy is not recommending any primary school to be set up by NGOs

on the ground that it is not part of the state policy.

9. Basic Minimum Services

• A Special Package of basic minimum services starting from food security to

safe drinking water; nutrition supplementation; primary health care; primary

education; and employment-cum-income-generation activities with full back-up

support of inputs and both backward and forward linkages needs to be

designed/developed for STs. People's participation through PRIs especially

that of the traditional tribal leaders and institutions in the formulation and

implementation of various programmes and schemes, should become an

essential ingredient of all these programmes.

10. Employment and Income Generation

• Employment and income generation opportunities should be ensured,

either through wage or self employment for a minimum period of 300 days a

year to raise their economic status and thus liberate them from the

shackles of poverty and indebtedness. Efforts should also be made to

extend micro-credit for self-employment ventures and consumption credit

when no work opportunities are available.

11. Micro-Credit Facilities

• One of the major problems in tribal areas is that of money lending. The PESA Act

of 1996 has a special provision for exercising power to control money lending by

Gram Sabhas. The State Governments should amend their existing

legislations in this regard to provide that money lenders firstly should be

registered with the Gram Panchayats and secondly the amount of interest

that they can charge should be specifically indicated in the State Acts for

the purpose so that no money lenders charge more than this rate under any

circumstances. Unless the amount of interest to be charged and the mode of

repayment is clearly laid down and that interest should be calculated in a simple

manner, the tribals will continue to be exploited notwithstanding the provision of

PESA Act.

• Financial Institutions need to be sensitised and motivated to extend microcredit

facilities to Tribals. There is also a need to simplify the lending

procedures and make the formalities customer-friendly. NTFDC and State Level

Tribal Development Corporations should take lead in this regard.

12. Agriculture & Shifting Cultivation

• There is an urgent need to - i) expand agricultural extension programmes in the

tribal areas to wean the tribals away from unremunerative agricultural practices

and training them, especially the youth, in the application of modern methods and

techniques and other inputs towards achieving more remunerative agricultural

production; ii) develop coarse grains seeds with longer shelf-life; and higher

yields; iii) improve the productivity of their agriculture with better inputs, expose

them to diversified agriculture; use of hybrid seeds for increased production;

organic manure and improved farming practices to utilize the bio-mass available

in tribal areas etc. iv) to study the agricultural practices and the crops grown by

the tribals in various parts of the country and target various research projects on

their improvement by the ICAR; and v) accelerate the pace of settlement of

shifting cultivation.

13. Forestry Development

Forest & trees have to address environmental challenges, livelihood security and

sustainable development. Deforestation has been responsible for soil erosion, dwindling of

aquifers, floods and droughts, desertification, declining farm productivity, non-availability of

forest produce, pollution and impoverishment of tribals. Forest degradation and economic

decline are feeding on each other leading to pollution, poverty, poor health, political

upheaval and unrest. The best way to arrest environmental degradation and promote

sustainable use of natural resources is to ensure participation of people particularly the

tribal women. A holistic approach and lasting solutions may include:-

• Increase in green cover under JFM programme by ensuring: i) suitable forest patches

are entrusted to the tribal communities; ii) security of tenure and access to benefit

guaranteed; iii) linkage with "Food for work scheme"; iv) appropriate marketing of the

produce, and; v) appropriate institutional financial mechanism and legal support.

• As a poliy tribal should not be displaced from the "Protected Forest Areas" Resettlement

and rehabilitation of tribals should be ensured by adopting eco-development around

protected areas.

• Agroforestry and social forestry should be promoted for meeting the food, fodder,

fuelwood, timber, bamboo requirement of the people. Commercial forestry should be

promoted for economic development of the tribals. All restrictions on felling of trees,

logging, transport and marketing of forest produce should be removed. Marketing

assistance should be provided to the tribals.

• Cultivation of bamboo should be encouraged for improving the economy of the tribals.

There is a fast spectrum of bamboo products which has not been attempted so far; either

on account of awareness or non development of markets for these products. Tribal should

be encouraged to grow the bamboo to take te advantage of international market since the

growth of value added bamboo products trade may grow upto Rs. 33,000 crores annually.

• Cultivation of medicinal plants

The global trade of medicinal plant is exceeding 65 billion US$. Government of India

has decided to take advantage of this trade and has set up a National Medicinal Plant

Board. The tribal should be encouraged to collect the medicinal plant from wild and also

cultivate suitable species for their self consumption as well as for sale.

• Collection of minor forest produce and their marketing to be encouraged

• Watershed Programmes should be allowed to continue and expand in the next Plan as

well. Construction of Water Harvesting Structures need to be encouraged especially in

critical areas such as KBK in Orissa for ensuring drought proofing.

• Shifting cultivations should receive special attention for their socio-economic

development and sustainable livelihood security.

14. Water Resources

• There should be a more effective operationalization of the National Water

Policy in tribal areas, so as to cover extension of irrigation facilities and

provision of drinking water with a special thrust on - i) watershed

management, rain water harvesting and water saving practices; ii) promotion of

micro-irrigation systems; iii) management of irrigation projects by the local tribal

farmers; iv) involvement of Water Users' Associations; v) supply of safe drinking

water to all the tribal habitations; and vi) mass education and public awareness

amongst the rural and tribal population for effective water resource management

and protecting the water resources from pollution.

15. Tribal Women

• Effective measures should be taken to improve the lot of tribal women, through - i)

promoting leadership role in Joint Forest Management; ii) issue of Joint Pattas in the

name of both husband and wife; iii) protecting the rights of tribal women in the

customary laws regarding share in property and obligations to look after their interests

and to enforce the same with the help of the community and social sanctions; iv) training

of tribal women to take up leadership role and occupy elected posts in Panchayati Raj

Institutions to ensure that the 33 1/3 % of the reserved seats are filled up and the

interests of tribal women are taken care of; v) legal and administrative measures to

check the practice of victimizing women suspected of witchcraft, along with a massive

campaign for social awareness and rehabilitation of victimized women, preferably

through women's organizations; vi) effective legal and rehabilitative measures to check

sexual exploitation of tribal women, especially the migrant women at work place; vii)

organising poor and assetless tribal women into Self-help Groups for accessing microcredit

and income generation activities; viii) opening of Sale Outlets to make the

essential commodities and other raw materials required in their day to day life easily

accessible; and ix) population proportionate percentage of benefits flow to tribal women

from the women-specific/women-related Ministries/ Departments of women and child

development, education, health and family welfare, rural development, labour etc.

16. Tribal Youth

• The Tribal youth should be given job-oriented education/training so that their

services can be made the best use for the good of their own community. This

would also help reduce the problem of non-availability of officers/workers to serve

in the Tribal areas for eg. Indigenous Health Workers; Trained Ayahs; ANMs,

Primary School Teachers etc. For this, atleast one member from each family

should be made use of for preparing a band of grass-root/village level workers.

17. Tribal Children and the Tribal Girl-Child

• Special efforts need to be made to expedite Universalisation of ICDS by covering

all the tribal Development blocks/tribal pockets and habitations all over the

country. The innovative concept of `Mini-Anganwadis' specially adopted in 1997

with the sole objective of `Reaching the Unreached Tribal Pockets' should

receive special thrust during the Tenth Five Year Plan.

C. Implementing Machinery

18. Central Level

•The newly set up Ministry of Tribal Affairs, being the nodal agency is made responsible for

empowering the tribals. Accordingly, it should exert itself to - i) formulate needbased

policies, plans and programmes; ii) review existing legislation which

impinge upon interests of tribals and to amend them, wherever necessary, to

protect their interests/persuade the States also to do so; iii) ensure the flow of

funds and benefits under TSP in proportion to their population from the general

development sectors both at Central and State levels; iv) guide and co- ordinate

both governmental and non-governmental organizations working for the welfare

and development of tribals; and v) monitor the implementation of policies and

programmes/laws related to STs to ensure their effective enforcement. To assist

the Ministry to perform its functions effectively, it has the following support structures :

• The existing National Commission for SCs and STs, New Delhi, should be

geared to safeguard the rights and interests of the Tribals more effectively

through appropriate restructuring.

• The recently set up National ST Finance & Development Corporation

(NSTFDC), New Delhi, should work in close liaison with the State Tribal

Development Corporations and other Channelising Agencies so as to develop a

good spread of net working all over the country to facilitate effective functioning of

the Corporation. Also the Corporation should be equipped with the

Professionals/Experts to make the organization worthy of being a self-sustaining

Corporation.

• The Tribal Co-operative Marketing Federation (TRIFED), New Delhi, should

be thoroughly revamped for effective enforcement of its mandate and ensuring

payment of remunerative prices to tribals. It should explore all the possibilities

of maximizing the gains in respect of Bamboo and medicinal plants trades. To

this effect, it should be able to strengthen its own structures and systems besides

developing its own linkages with other alike agencies active in the field.

19. State Level

• Efforts should be made to ensure for setting of exclusive Departments for Tribal

Development, just as on the lines as it exists at the centre to give a continuous

and focused attention on the development of tribals, as effective implementation

plays the crux of the problem.

20. The State Tribal Research Institutes

The 14 Tribal Research Institutes in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand,

Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil

Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura needs to be activiated as most of them are

not able to fulfil their objectives due to ineffective functioning and negligence on the part

of the respective State Governments.

21. District/Block Level

The State Government should provide both developmental and financial powers to

ITDPs where the Chairman of the DRDA is also Project Director of the ITDP. It is also

said that since the Collector is a very busy person with other functions, a Senior Officer

other than Collector heading the DRDA should coordinate the working of all the other

District officials of the Line Departments working in ITDPs Areas. This approach alone

would enable the Administration to pay adequate attention to the well-being of tribals and

the development of tribal areas.

22. Village Level

People’s institutional infrastructure at the grass-root level refers to the Gram Sabha

through the Gram Panchayats, Intermediate Panchayats and district Panchayats to state

and national legislatures. These institutional mechanisms should be fully utilized by the

people to usher in an era of development of their own conception. The tribal people

should be made fully aware of the facilities and options available to enable them to make

their own choices.

23. Merger of DRDAs and ITDPs

• The present system of devolution of funds through the State Government for Central

Sector and Centrally Sponsored Schemes leaves much to be desired. The State

Governments face resource crunch and do not release funds on time. As a result the

developmental schemes suffer. It is therefore, recommended that in the Tribal area,

where ITDAs have already been set up the same should be restructured so that each

ITDP is co terminus with the district. The District Rural Development agencies in these

districts should then be merged with ITDPs and the poverty alleviation schemes in such

areas should be implemented by newly merged DRDA which should have

preponderance of tribal benefit schemes in accordance with the population of STs. This

should be initially implemented in scheduled areas during the Tenth Plan and the results

thereof to be watched.

D. Legislative Support

24. Land Alienation

• All the concerned State Governments need to be persuaded to bring forth necessary

amendments in their existing laws and regulations concerning tribal land to ensure; i)

total ban on transfer of tribal land to non-tribals; ii) stringent penal provisions for non-

tribal persons found in possession of tribal land once restored; iii) land alienation laws to

cover non-scheduled areas; iv) effective machinery for quick disposal of cases and

restoration of land possession; v) strengthening of traditional tribal Panchayats/councils

with adequate legal awareness and legal aid provisions; vi) constitution of committees

with tribal representatives to review the projects involving land alienation where it

becomes inevitable, and the resultant rehabilitation of the tribals, thus affected; and vii)

awareness generation and legal aid for implementation of legal provisions concerning

alienation.

25. Money Lending Menace

• Despite the best governmental efforts, the existing laws have failed to prevent the

extortion of money-lenders. In fact, while some States are yet to enact laws on the

subject, the money-lending laws in other Scheduled Areas States contain loop-holes

which need to be plugged out. The legal frame is provided by Para 5(2)(c) of the Firth

Schedule of the Constitution and Section 4(m)(v) of the Provisions of the Panchayats

(Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act 1996. In fact, it is time that the concerned State

Governments enact fool-proof laws in conformity with them.

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